Rabu, 11 April 2012
Psychological Approach --File Seven-- End
Dissecting Beowulf using a psychological approach is not an easy task. Since Beowulf is essentially an oral epic, it is possible there are a multitude of authors. This creates issues when trying to use a psychological lens when evaluating the author. In this essay, we will attempt to psychologically analyze the key characters in Beowulf and use our best judgment to examine the possible psychological state of the author(s).
The protagonist of this epic poem is Beowulf. Beowulf is a consistent hero and leader. While many readers view Beowulf as being arrogant and confident, we believe he has many insecurities that drive him to take on dangerous endeavors. Beowulf could be described as using projection , a defense mechanism of neuroses , to cope with his mental insecurities. Projection is when one takes his/her bad characteristics and transmits them onto another person, in other words a scapegoat is created. The first example of this is the swimming contest between Beowulf and Unferth. Unferth questions Beowulf's abilities, and Beowulf retaliates with a shower of excuses that explain away his mistakes and obvious loss. Lines 529 to 606 of the poem describe this tale. He speaks of the obstacles that prevented him from winning, such as, wind, waves, cold, and ocean creatures attacking him (Psychoanalysis Mini-Primer 1).
The main villain in this poem is Grendel. Grendel is said to be the descendent of Cain, which automatically suggests evil because of the famous Biblical story. In the Bible, Cain was banished from Eden because he murdered his brother Abel. This reflects Grendel's position and status in society. Grendel is suffering from alienation , a psychological term meaning, “ separation from nature, other people, or oneself that results in feelings of loneliness, emptiness, or despair .” ( http://www.pearsoned.ca/psych/main.html) He is an outsider in the Danish community, and we feel Grendel is lashing out at the members of society that have rejected him. Deep down we believe Grendel is jealous of the people in Heorot Hall, and as a result, he takes his rage out on them.
Hrothgar is the king of the Danes in the Beowulf epic. He appears to be a good and generous king, however he can be viewed as being rather passive and lacking aggression. One could argue that Hrothgar has an inferiority complex , which is a, “ psychological condition that exists when a person is overwhelmed by feelings of inferiority to the point at which nothing can be accomplished.” (http://www.pearsoned.ca/psych/main.html) He allowed Grendel to terrorize his kingdom for twelve years before Beowulf arrived. Hrothgar can be viewed as a coward for never engaging in combat with Grendel personally. With all of his wealth, Heorot Hall, the kingdom, etc., we feel Hrothgar is trying to hide his insecurities behind his many material possessions. We believe Hrothgar uses his extravagance and wealth to blind people to his many faults.
Grendel's mother avenges Grendel's death in Beowulf. She never really taunted or disturbed the Danes like her son, until Beowulf killed Grendel. Like most mothers, she feels the need to take justice into her own hands by avenging Grendel's death. Much like Grendel, she is very brutal and vicious in her methods of attack. Even though Grendel's mother is a monstrous creature, she still displays the emotions of a human. Grendel's mother operates under the instinct theory , “ the notion that human behavior is motivated by certain innate tendencies, or instincts, shared by all individuals.” (http://www.pearsoned.ca/psych/main.html) Her attack on Heorot was out of pain and grief, emotions most mothers would have after losing a child. Another interesting characteristic of Grendel's mother is her role as a female in this epic. Instead of being submissive and subdued, she fights back by standing up to the man that took her son.
The author of this epic remains unknown to this day. Because of this uncertainty, it is difficult to know what was truly influencing the construction of Beowulf. Nevertheless, we feel the author is relating his own life to Beowulf. The character Beowulf is used to compensate for all of the author's shortcomings in his own life. Beowulf is everything the author wants to be, while at the same time, the author's insecurities are also shown in Beowulf's constant need for self-gratification. The author was more than likely a fame seeker and was seeking recognition for his creation of Beowulf. Finally, using the sexual undertones we have discussed in class, interpretations of Beowulf suggest sexual acts or frustration. Beowulf seems to display characteristics from the genital stage of the psychosexual stages of development . The genital stage is marked by “sexual interest and desire.” Perhaps Beowulf did not resolve issues from the phallic stage and is troubled by anxiety when it comes to sex. A prime example is the fight between Beowulf and Grendel's mother. The author writes of Beowulf embracing Grendel's mother in a very physical manner. The first sword, a phallic symbol for the penis, is proved to be ineffective in penetrating Grendel's mother. Due to the inadequacy of this sword, Beowulf obtained a larger sword. This can be interpreted as sexual frustration and insecurity (Psychoanalysis Mini-Primer 2,3).
The psychological approach to literature is quite complex. There are many different viewpoints in which one can derive from a work. This approach can be rather opinionated because every reader can make different conclusions when interpreting characters and their thoughts. Beowulf is no exception to this rule. This essay is just our interpretation of the main characters of Beowulf. Despite how the reader views Beowulf, there is no doubt that Beowulf is a classic that has withstood the test of time and can spark the imagination of every individual.
Source : http://homepage.mac.com/barbarap2/home/Approaches/BeowulfMWF.html
»» ^^ More of KeyChi...
The protagonist of this epic poem is Beowulf. Beowulf is a consistent hero and leader. While many readers view Beowulf as being arrogant and confident, we believe he has many insecurities that drive him to take on dangerous endeavors. Beowulf could be described as using projection , a defense mechanism of neuroses , to cope with his mental insecurities. Projection is when one takes his/her bad characteristics and transmits them onto another person, in other words a scapegoat is created. The first example of this is the swimming contest between Beowulf and Unferth. Unferth questions Beowulf's abilities, and Beowulf retaliates with a shower of excuses that explain away his mistakes and obvious loss. Lines 529 to 606 of the poem describe this tale. He speaks of the obstacles that prevented him from winning, such as, wind, waves, cold, and ocean creatures attacking him (Psychoanalysis Mini-Primer 1).
Throughout the poem, Beowulf feels the need to prove himself as a hero in order to silence the doubts from others as well as the inner doubts he places on himself. Beowulf does not take these risks to help or benefit others, instead he engages in these outrageous endeavors for selfish and self-glorifying reasons. He is seeking fame and trying to establish a legacy that will last for all time.Time and again, foul things attacked me,
lurking and stalking, but I lashed out,
gave as good as I got with my sword.
My flesh was not for feasting on,
there would be no monsters gnawing and gloating
over their banquet at the bottom of the sea. (Heaney 39)
The main villain in this poem is Grendel. Grendel is said to be the descendent of Cain, which automatically suggests evil because of the famous Biblical story. In the Bible, Cain was banished from Eden because he murdered his brother Abel. This reflects Grendel's position and status in society. Grendel is suffering from alienation , a psychological term meaning, “ separation from nature, other people, or oneself that results in feelings of loneliness, emptiness, or despair .” ( http://www.pearsoned.ca/psych/main.html) He is an outsider in the Danish community, and we feel Grendel is lashing out at the members of society that have rejected him. Deep down we believe Grendel is jealous of the people in Heorot Hall, and as a result, he takes his rage out on them.
Grendel is an aggressor , which means he displays “ intentional behavior aimed at causing either physical or psychological pain.” (http://www.pearsoned.ca/psych/main.html) It is easy to compare Grendel's behavior to that of a modern day bully who feels the need to dominate and be feared by others. Grendel feeds off of the fear of his victims and thrives on power. Like a bully, Grendel craves attention, even if that attention is negative.Then his rage boiled over, he ripped open
the mouth of the building, maddening for blood,
pacing the length of the patterned floor
with his loathsome tread, while a baleful light,
flame more than light, flared from his eyes. (49)
Hrothgar is the king of the Danes in the Beowulf epic. He appears to be a good and generous king, however he can be viewed as being rather passive and lacking aggression. One could argue that Hrothgar has an inferiority complex , which is a, “ psychological condition that exists when a person is overwhelmed by feelings of inferiority to the point at which nothing can be accomplished.” (http://www.pearsoned.ca/psych/main.html) He allowed Grendel to terrorize his kingdom for twelve years before Beowulf arrived. Hrothgar can be viewed as a coward for never engaging in combat with Grendel personally. With all of his wealth, Heorot Hall, the kingdom, etc., we feel Hrothgar is trying to hide his insecurities behind his many material possessions. We believe Hrothgar uses his extravagance and wealth to blind people to his many faults.
Grendel's mother avenges Grendel's death in Beowulf. She never really taunted or disturbed the Danes like her son, until Beowulf killed Grendel. Like most mothers, she feels the need to take justice into her own hands by avenging Grendel's death. Much like Grendel, she is very brutal and vicious in her methods of attack. Even though Grendel's mother is a monstrous creature, she still displays the emotions of a human. Grendel's mother operates under the instinct theory , “ the notion that human behavior is motivated by certain innate tendencies, or instincts, shared by all individuals.” (http://www.pearsoned.ca/psych/main.html) Her attack on Heorot was out of pain and grief, emotions most mothers would have after losing a child. Another interesting characteristic of Grendel's mother is her role as a female in this epic. Instead of being submissive and subdued, she fights back by standing up to the man that took her son.
Grendel's mother does not fit the typical mold of females in this discussed time period. She is not a peace-weaver or a cup-passer but instead is independent and aggressive.So she lunged and clutched and managed to catch him
in her brutal grip; but his body, for all that,
remained unscathed: the mesh of the chain-mail
saved him on the outside. Her savage talons
failed to rip the web of his warshirt.
Then once she touched bottom, that wolfish swimmer
carried the ring-mailed prince to her court
so that for all his courage he could never use
the weapons he carried; and a bewildering horde
came at him from the depths, droves of sea-beasts
who attacked with tusks and tore at his chain-mail
in a ghastly onslaught.” (105)
The author of this epic remains unknown to this day. Because of this uncertainty, it is difficult to know what was truly influencing the construction of Beowulf. Nevertheless, we feel the author is relating his own life to Beowulf. The character Beowulf is used to compensate for all of the author's shortcomings in his own life. Beowulf is everything the author wants to be, while at the same time, the author's insecurities are also shown in Beowulf's constant need for self-gratification. The author was more than likely a fame seeker and was seeking recognition for his creation of Beowulf. Finally, using the sexual undertones we have discussed in class, interpretations of Beowulf suggest sexual acts or frustration. Beowulf seems to display characteristics from the genital stage of the psychosexual stages of development . The genital stage is marked by “sexual interest and desire.” Perhaps Beowulf did not resolve issues from the phallic stage and is troubled by anxiety when it comes to sex. A prime example is the fight between Beowulf and Grendel's mother. The author writes of Beowulf embracing Grendel's mother in a very physical manner. The first sword, a phallic symbol for the penis, is proved to be ineffective in penetrating Grendel's mother. Due to the inadequacy of this sword, Beowulf obtained a larger sword. This can be interpreted as sexual frustration and insecurity (Psychoanalysis Mini-Primer 2,3).
The psychological approach to literature is quite complex. There are many different viewpoints in which one can derive from a work. This approach can be rather opinionated because every reader can make different conclusions when interpreting characters and their thoughts. Beowulf is no exception to this rule. This essay is just our interpretation of the main characters of Beowulf. Despite how the reader views Beowulf, there is no doubt that Beowulf is a classic that has withstood the test of time and can spark the imagination of every individual.
Works Cited
Pearson Education. 2004. 16 May 2004 < http://www.pearsoned.ca/psych/main.html >. Source : http://homepage.mac.com/barbarap2/home/Approaches/BeowulfMWF.html
Psycological Approach --File six--
What is Reader Response Criticism?
Reader response criticism places strong emphasis on the reader's role in producing the meaning of a literary work. It is in some senses an opposite approach from that of formalism. Whereas formalists treat meaning as objectively inherent in the text, in reader response criticism, the text has no meaning until it is read by a reader who creates the meaning. Unlike the formalistic critical approach, this type of literary criticism insists that works are not universal, that is, that they will not always mean more or less the same thing to readers everywhere. Indeed, according to one practitioner of reader response criticism, Norman Holland, the reader imposes his or her own identity on the work, "to a large extent recreating that text in the reader's image."
What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Reader Response Criticism?
Reader response criticism acknowledges that different people view works differently and that interpretations change over time. However, it also tends to make interpretation highly subjective and consequently does not provide sufficient criteria for judging between two or more different interpretations of the text. Reader response criticism has been used by literary critics ranging from I.A. Richards and Louise Rosenblatt to Walter Gibson and Norman Holland.
An Example of Reader Response Criticism
In reading the parable of the prodigal son in the New Testament, different readers are likely to have different responses. Someone who has lived a fairly straight and narrow life and who does not feel like he has been rewarded for it is likely to associate with the older brother of the parable and sympathize with his opposition to the celebration over the prodigal son's return. Someone with a more checkered past would probably approach the parable with more sympathy for the younger brother. A parent who had had difficulties with a rebellious child would probably focus on the father, and, depending on his or her experience, might see the father's unconditional acceptance of the prodigal as either good and merciful or as unwise and overindulgent. While the parable might disturb some, it could elicit a feeling of relief from others.
When using reader response criticism as a tool of analysis, you could write about how the author evokes a particular reaction in you as the reader, what features of your own identity influence you in creating your interpretation, and how another reader in a different situation might interpret the work differently.
Reader response criticism places strong emphasis on the reader's role in producing the meaning of a literary work. It is in some senses an opposite approach from that of formalism. Whereas formalists treat meaning as objectively inherent in the text, in reader response criticism, the text has no meaning until it is read by a reader who creates the meaning. Unlike the formalistic critical approach, this type of literary criticism insists that works are not universal, that is, that they will not always mean more or less the same thing to readers everywhere. Indeed, according to one practitioner of reader response criticism, Norman Holland, the reader imposes his or her own identity on the work, "to a large extent recreating that text in the reader's image."
What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Reader Response Criticism?
Reader response criticism acknowledges that different people view works differently and that interpretations change over time. However, it also tends to make interpretation highly subjective and consequently does not provide sufficient criteria for judging between two or more different interpretations of the text. Reader response criticism has been used by literary critics ranging from I.A. Richards and Louise Rosenblatt to Walter Gibson and Norman Holland.
An Example of Reader Response Criticism
In reading the parable of the prodigal son in the New Testament, different readers are likely to have different responses. Someone who has lived a fairly straight and narrow life and who does not feel like he has been rewarded for it is likely to associate with the older brother of the parable and sympathize with his opposition to the celebration over the prodigal son's return. Someone with a more checkered past would probably approach the parable with more sympathy for the younger brother. A parent who had had difficulties with a rebellious child would probably focus on the father, and, depending on his or her experience, might see the father's unconditional acceptance of the prodigal as either good and merciful or as unwise and overindulgent. While the parable might disturb some, it could elicit a feeling of relief from others.
When using reader response criticism as a tool of analysis, you could write about how the author evokes a particular reaction in you as the reader, what features of your own identity influence you in creating your interpretation, and how another reader in a different situation might interpret the work differently.
Pschological Approach --File five--
Psychological Approach
Definition:
Psychological critics view works through the lens of psychology. They look either at the psychological motivations of the characters or of the authors themselves, although the former is generally considered a more respectable approach. Most frequently, psychological critics apply Freudian psychology to works, but other approaches (such as a Jungian approach) also exist.
Freudian Approach:
A Freudian approach often includes pinpointing the influences of a character's id (the instinctual, pleasure seeking part of the mind), superego (the part of the mind that represses the id's impulses) and the ego (the part of the mind that controls but does not repress the id's impulses, releasing them in a healthy way). Freudian critics like to point out the sexual implications of symbols and imagery, since Freud's believed that all human behavior is motivated by sexuality. They tend to see concave images, such as ponds, flowers, cups, and caves as female symbols; whereas objects that are longer than they are wide are usually seen as phallic symbols. Dancing, riding, and flying are associated with sexual pleasure. Water is usually associated with birth, the female principle, the maternal, the womb, and the death wish. Freudian critics occasionally discern the presence of an Oedipus complex (a boy's unconscious rivalry with his father for the love of his mother) in the male characters of certain works, such as Hamlet. They may also refer to Freud's psychology of child development, which includes the oral stage, the anal stage, and the genital stage.
Jungian Approach:
Jung is also an influential force in myth (archetypal) criticism. Psychological critics are generally concerned with his concept of the process of individuation (the process of discovering what makes one different form everyone else). Jung labeled three parts of the self: the shadow, or the darker, unconscious self (usually the villain in literature); the persona, or a man's social personality (usually the hero); and the anima, or a man's "soul image" (usually the heroine). A neurosis occurs when someone fails to assimilate one of these unconscious components into his conscious and projects it on someone else. The persona must be flexible and be able to balance the components of the psyche.
Practitioners:
Ernest Jones, Otto Rank, Marie Boaparte, and others
Advantages:
It can be a useful tool for understanding some works, such as Henry James The Turning of the Screw, in which characters obviously have psychological issues. Like the biographical approach, knowing something about a writer's psychological make up can give us insight into his work.
Disadvantages:
Psychological criticism can turn a work into little more than a psychological case study, neglecting to view it as a piece of art. Critics sometimes attempt to diagnose long dead authors based on their works, which is perhaps not the best evidence of their psychology. Critics tend to see sex in everything, exaggerating this aspect of literature. Finally, some works do not lend themselves readily to this approach.
Examples:
(1) A psychological approach to John Milton's Samson Agonisties might suggest that the shorning of Samson's locks is symbolic of his castration at the hands of Dalila and that the fighting words he exchanges with Harapha constitute a reassertion of his manhood. Psychological critics might see Samson's bondage as a symbol of his sexual impotency, and his destruction of the Philistine temple and the killing of himself and many others as a final orgasmic event (since death and sex are often closely associated in Freudian psychology). The total absence of Samson's mother in Samson Agonisties would make it difficult to argue anything regarding the Oedipus complex, but Samson refusal to be cared for by his father and his remorse over failing to rule Dalila may be seen as indicative of his own fears regarding his sexuality.
(2) A psychological approach to "The Silence of the Llano" would allow us to look into the motivations of Rafael--it would allow us to examine the effects of isolation and loneliness on his character and provide some reasoning for why he might chose to establish an incestuous relationship with his daughter. A specifically Freudian approach will tune us in to the relevant symbolism which will enable us to better understand the conclusion. For instance, with such a mind frame, we can immediately recognize that Rafael's statement to his daughter "I will turn the earth for you. The seeds will grow" is the establishment of a sexual relationship that will result in children. We can see the water in which she bathes as symbolic of that birth that is to come.
Sample Paper:
A Freudian Approach to Erin McGraw's "A Thief"
Source : http://www.editorskylar.com/litcrit.html#Psych
This approach can be useful tool for understanding some works, like the biographical approach. For example a psychological approach to John Milton’s Samson Agonisties and a Freudian approach to Erin McGraw’s in “A Thief”.
»» ^^ More of KeyChi...
Definition:
Psychological critics view works through the lens of psychology. They look either at the psychological motivations of the characters or of the authors themselves, although the former is generally considered a more respectable approach. Most frequently, psychological critics apply Freudian psychology to works, but other approaches (such as a Jungian approach) also exist.
Freudian Approach:
A Freudian approach often includes pinpointing the influences of a character's id (the instinctual, pleasure seeking part of the mind), superego (the part of the mind that represses the id's impulses) and the ego (the part of the mind that controls but does not repress the id's impulses, releasing them in a healthy way). Freudian critics like to point out the sexual implications of symbols and imagery, since Freud's believed that all human behavior is motivated by sexuality. They tend to see concave images, such as ponds, flowers, cups, and caves as female symbols; whereas objects that are longer than they are wide are usually seen as phallic symbols. Dancing, riding, and flying are associated with sexual pleasure. Water is usually associated with birth, the female principle, the maternal, the womb, and the death wish. Freudian critics occasionally discern the presence of an Oedipus complex (a boy's unconscious rivalry with his father for the love of his mother) in the male characters of certain works, such as Hamlet. They may also refer to Freud's psychology of child development, which includes the oral stage, the anal stage, and the genital stage.
Jungian Approach:
Jung is also an influential force in myth (archetypal) criticism. Psychological critics are generally concerned with his concept of the process of individuation (the process of discovering what makes one different form everyone else). Jung labeled three parts of the self: the shadow, or the darker, unconscious self (usually the villain in literature); the persona, or a man's social personality (usually the hero); and the anima, or a man's "soul image" (usually the heroine). A neurosis occurs when someone fails to assimilate one of these unconscious components into his conscious and projects it on someone else. The persona must be flexible and be able to balance the components of the psyche.
Practitioners:
Ernest Jones, Otto Rank, Marie Boaparte, and others
Advantages:
It can be a useful tool for understanding some works, such as Henry James The Turning of the Screw, in which characters obviously have psychological issues. Like the biographical approach, knowing something about a writer's psychological make up can give us insight into his work.
Disadvantages:
Psychological criticism can turn a work into little more than a psychological case study, neglecting to view it as a piece of art. Critics sometimes attempt to diagnose long dead authors based on their works, which is perhaps not the best evidence of their psychology. Critics tend to see sex in everything, exaggerating this aspect of literature. Finally, some works do not lend themselves readily to this approach.
Examples:
(1) A psychological approach to John Milton's Samson Agonisties might suggest that the shorning of Samson's locks is symbolic of his castration at the hands of Dalila and that the fighting words he exchanges with Harapha constitute a reassertion of his manhood. Psychological critics might see Samson's bondage as a symbol of his sexual impotency, and his destruction of the Philistine temple and the killing of himself and many others as a final orgasmic event (since death and sex are often closely associated in Freudian psychology). The total absence of Samson's mother in Samson Agonisties would make it difficult to argue anything regarding the Oedipus complex, but Samson refusal to be cared for by his father and his remorse over failing to rule Dalila may be seen as indicative of his own fears regarding his sexuality.
(2) A psychological approach to "The Silence of the Llano" would allow us to look into the motivations of Rafael--it would allow us to examine the effects of isolation and loneliness on his character and provide some reasoning for why he might chose to establish an incestuous relationship with his daughter. A specifically Freudian approach will tune us in to the relevant symbolism which will enable us to better understand the conclusion. For instance, with such a mind frame, we can immediately recognize that Rafael's statement to his daughter "I will turn the earth for you. The seeds will grow" is the establishment of a sexual relationship that will result in children. We can see the water in which she bathes as symbolic of that birth that is to come.
Sample Paper:
A Freudian Approach to Erin McGraw's "A Thief"
Source : http://www.editorskylar.com/litcrit.html#Psych
Conclusion :
· Pychological Approach with Freudian theory, pointing the influences of character’s id, superego, and the ego.
· Pychological Approach with Jungian theory, influential of myth criticism. Jung labeled three part of our self : the shadow, the anima, and the persona.
This approach can be useful tool for understanding some works, like the biographical approach. For example a psychological approach to John Milton’s Samson Agonisties and a Freudian approach to Erin McGraw’s in “A Thief”.
Psycological Approach --File Four--
Pschologial apporach in Pride and Prejudice
One has heard of characters in a story. And the character of people. But character of Life? Does Life has a character of its own?
Like the individual and society, Life too has what may be called a character of its own. Life can be described in terms of the characteristic ways in which events occur, repeat, reverse, and the factors that determine the results and consequences of human action. We often perceive and label the characteristic actions of life with terms such as chance, luck, fate or destiny. Knowledge of the character of Life gives us mastery over this chance, luck, fate, destiny, and LIFE.
Life is governed by subtle laws and principles of action and reaction that characterize the interaction between the thoughts, feelings and acts of the individual, society and universal nature. Great literature is true to life, and it can be studied to reveal these laws and principles. An in depth study of Pride and Prejudice reveals these laws here.
Take the case of initiative. It is a law of life that initiatives by those in a higher plane of life (i.e. with greater wealth, status or power) toward those in a lower plane tend to be readily and richly fulfilled, provided the lower is a willing recipient and does not raise obstacles or resistance to receiving. Other initiatives generate results with lesser or greater difficulty. They meet with resistance in the measure the initiatives involve an upward movement or require energy and capacity beyond the endowments of the individuals involved. So Collins cannot marry Elizabeth, but he can marry Charlotte. Wickham can elope with Lydia, but not with Georgiana. Bingley can get Jane, not Georgiana. All of Mrs.Bennet's initiatives fails, but all it takes Charlotte to get Collins is three days plus a morning walk.
Initiatives may receive unexpected support from life when they are aligned with new movements that are gaining momentum. Initiatives may meet with unexpected resistance when they are aligned with movements that are passing out of existence. Lady Catherine’s efforts to marry her daughter Anne to Darcy meet with resistance and ultimately fail. Lady Catherine seeks to capitalize on the mutual pledge of her sister and herself that their children should marry, a practice whose value is passing out of existence. The social will is seeking to reinvigorate the aristocracy and that movement takes precedence over Anne’s personal connections. The light in Eliza’s eyes is enough to overcome the best-laid plans of the older generation to perpetuate itself in the old style.
A study of every character's initiative, and and why one succeeded and another failed reveals to us the key to accomplishment. Another interesting study is the act. Each act is the expression of a force that tends to repeat itself. The greater the intensity of the force and the more times it repeats, the greater its capacity for further repetition. The quality and intensity of the force express in each subsequent repetition of the act. The very fact that the seeds of four marriages are being sown at the same time is an act of repetition. When Mrs. Bennet first asks Mr. Bennet to call on Bingley, Bennet protests and apparently refuses, but the next day he goes in deference to her request. When Bingley becomes interested in Jane, his sisters and Darcy protest, though ultimately they all accept Jane as his wife. Bennet’s initial protest is mirrored by their own.
To continue : http://www.prideandprejudice.info/life.htm
»» ^^ More of KeyChi...
One has heard of characters in a story. And the character of people. But character of Life? Does Life has a character of its own?
Like the individual and society, Life too has what may be called a character of its own. Life can be described in terms of the characteristic ways in which events occur, repeat, reverse, and the factors that determine the results and consequences of human action. We often perceive and label the characteristic actions of life with terms such as chance, luck, fate or destiny. Knowledge of the character of Life gives us mastery over this chance, luck, fate, destiny, and LIFE.
Life is governed by subtle laws and principles of action and reaction that characterize the interaction between the thoughts, feelings and acts of the individual, society and universal nature. Great literature is true to life, and it can be studied to reveal these laws and principles. An in depth study of Pride and Prejudice reveals these laws here.
Take the case of initiative. It is a law of life that initiatives by those in a higher plane of life (i.e. with greater wealth, status or power) toward those in a lower plane tend to be readily and richly fulfilled, provided the lower is a willing recipient and does not raise obstacles or resistance to receiving. Other initiatives generate results with lesser or greater difficulty. They meet with resistance in the measure the initiatives involve an upward movement or require energy and capacity beyond the endowments of the individuals involved. So Collins cannot marry Elizabeth, but he can marry Charlotte. Wickham can elope with Lydia, but not with Georgiana. Bingley can get Jane, not Georgiana. All of Mrs.Bennet's initiatives fails, but all it takes Charlotte to get Collins is three days plus a morning walk.Initiatives may receive unexpected support from life when they are aligned with new movements that are gaining momentum. Initiatives may meet with unexpected resistance when they are aligned with movements that are passing out of existence. Lady Catherine’s efforts to marry her daughter Anne to Darcy meet with resistance and ultimately fail. Lady Catherine seeks to capitalize on the mutual pledge of her sister and herself that their children should marry, a practice whose value is passing out of existence. The social will is seeking to reinvigorate the aristocracy and that movement takes precedence over Anne’s personal connections. The light in Eliza’s eyes is enough to overcome the best-laid plans of the older generation to perpetuate itself in the old style.
A study of every character's initiative, and and why one succeeded and another failed reveals to us the key to accomplishment. Another interesting study is the act. Each act is the expression of a force that tends to repeat itself. The greater the intensity of the force and the more times it repeats, the greater its capacity for further repetition. The quality and intensity of the force express in each subsequent repetition of the act. The very fact that the seeds of four marriages are being sown at the same time is an act of repetition. When Mrs. Bennet first asks Mr. Bennet to call on Bingley, Bennet protests and apparently refuses, but the next day he goes in deference to her request. When Bingley becomes interested in Jane, his sisters and Darcy protest, though ultimately they all accept Jane as his wife. Bennet’s initial protest is mirrored by their own.To continue : http://www.prideandprejudice.info/life.htm
Pschological Approach --File Three--
Psychological Approach to Analyze Literature
The aim of psychological study fold in three nature. For most is the objective of understanding behavior, that is of defining the operation those factors that combine the development and expression of behavior. Secondly is the psychologist striving to develop procedure for the accurate prediction of behavior. Thirdly, psychology aims at developing techniques that will permit the control of behavior that is, way of “ shaping” or course of psychological development through manipulating those basic factors to the growth and expression of behavior.
The psychological approach leads most directly to a substantial amplification of the meaning of a literary work. When we discuss psychology and its place in a literary work, we are primarily studying the author’s imagination. As all literary works are based on some kind of experience, and as all authors are human, we are necessarily caught up in the wide spectrum of emotional problems (caused by experience). Not all recourse of psychology in the analysis of literary work is undertaken to arrive at and understanding of the literary work, to a certain extent, we must be willing to use psychology to discuss probability.
The psychological approach leads most directly to a substantial amplification of the meaning of a literary work. When we discuss psychology and its place in a literary work, we are primarily studying the author’s imagination. As all literary works are based on some kind of experience, and as all authors are human, we are necessarily caught up in the wide spectrum of emotional problems (caused by experience). Not all recourse of psychology in the analysis of literary work is undertaken to arrive at and understanding of the literary work, to a certain extent, we must be willing to use psychology to discuss probability.
Psychological Approach --File two--
THE PSYCHOLOGY enables to study the interior life of the writer and study his work with reference to it. The psychology has provided the critic with a more precise language with which to discuss the creative process. The reality of a work of literature rests on the three factors (1) Author’s psychology (2) Character’s psychology (3) Audience’s Psychology
Sigraund Freud’s conception of literature is negative. He viewed art as a”substitute gratification” or in other words” fulfilment of libidious desires”, the process of draining the negative emotions. Freud is precisely an empirical scientist.
But C.J.Jung, with his concept of “collective conscious¬ness” acknowledged the element of drama and mystical thinking in literature.
The psychological approach is not new because even Aristotle’s “Catharsis” implies the purification of negative emotions. Aristotle viewed tragedy as a therapeutic process.
Joyce’s “Ulysses” and Lawrence’s “Sons and Lovers” lend themselves to this approach. The notions of (Oedipus complex and fixation are found in “sons and lovers”.
Earnest Jones viewed Shakespeare’s ‘Hamlet’ with the world of psycho-analysis. In his essay “Hamlet and Oedipus” he says Hamlet delayed the killing of Claudius due to his seeing ‘his own self in his uncle.
The liberty concept of ‘Stream of consciousness’ which is fed by the literary output of Virginia Woolf rests strongly on the exploration of the “Sub-conscious”.
Kenneth Burke in his critical essay “The Poetic Process” says that the emotions are evoked only when an abstract and intellectual idea is concretised through conceptualisation. It can be either drama, or novel, or story, or film. But the process is the same.
For full of essay look in : http://www.termpaperslab.com/essay-on-psychological-approach-of-literary-criticism/1606.html
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Sigraund Freud’s conception of literature is negative. He viewed art as a”substitute gratification” or in other words” fulfilment of libidious desires”, the process of draining the negative emotions. Freud is precisely an empirical scientist.
But C.J.Jung, with his concept of “collective conscious¬ness” acknowledged the element of drama and mystical thinking in literature.
The psychological approach is not new because even Aristotle’s “Catharsis” implies the purification of negative emotions. Aristotle viewed tragedy as a therapeutic process.
Joyce’s “Ulysses” and Lawrence’s “Sons and Lovers” lend themselves to this approach. The notions of (Oedipus complex and fixation are found in “sons and lovers”.
Earnest Jones viewed Shakespeare’s ‘Hamlet’ with the world of psycho-analysis. In his essay “Hamlet and Oedipus” he says Hamlet delayed the killing of Claudius due to his seeing ‘his own self in his uncle.
The liberty concept of ‘Stream of consciousness’ which is fed by the literary output of Virginia Woolf rests strongly on the exploration of the “Sub-conscious”.
Kenneth Burke in his critical essay “The Poetic Process” says that the emotions are evoked only when an abstract and intellectual idea is concretised through conceptualisation. It can be either drama, or novel, or story, or film. But the process is the same.
For full of essay look in : http://www.termpaperslab.com/essay-on-psychological-approach-of-literary-criticism/1606.html
Psychological approach --File One--
The Psychological Approach: Freud |
 |
Aim of Psychological Approach:
Abuses and Misunderstandings of the Psychological Approach:
Freud’s Theories:
Freud assigned mental processes to three psychic zones:
Examples of the Psychological Approach in practice:
Taken from A Handbook of Critical Approaches ot Literature, Fouth ed. Guren, et al |
Source : http://ragingdove12603.tripod.com/id15.html
Translation Theory Part 7 --- End
What is Literary Translation?
Literary translation bridges the delicate emotional connections between cultures and languages and furthers the understanding of human beings across national borders. In the act of literary translation the soul of another culture becomes transparent, and the translator recreates the refined sensibilities of foreign countries and their people through the linguistic, musical, rhythmic, and visual possibilities of the new language.
Professor Rainer Schulte, Co-Founder of ALTA
Source : http://www.utdallas.edu/alta/about/literary-translation
Professor Rainer Schulte, Co-Founder of ALTA
Source : http://www.utdallas.edu/alta/about/literary-translation
Translation Theory Part 6
The nature and importance of translation
Translation is ultimately a human activity which enables human beings to exchange ideas and thoughts regardless of the different tongues used. Al Wassety (2001) views the phenomenon of translation as a legitimate offspring of the phenomenon of language, since originally, when humans spread over the earth, their languages differed and they needed a means through which people speaking a certain language (tongue) would interact with others who spoke a different language.
Translation is, in Enani’s (1997) view, a modern science at the interface of philosophy, linguistics, psychology, and sociology. Literary translation in particular is relevant to all these sciences, audio-visual arts, as well as cultural and intellectual studies.
Translation is, in Chabban’s words (1984:5), “a finicky job,” as it has not yet been reduced to strict scientific rules, and it allows for the differences that are known to exist between different personalities. Translation is a heavily subjective art, especially when it deals with matters outside the realm of science where precisely defined concepts are more often expressed by certain generally accepted terms.
In the final analysis, translation is a science, an art, and a skill. It is a science in the sense that it necessitates complete knowledge of the structure and make-up of the two languages concerned. It is an art since it requires artistic talent to reconstruct the original text in the form of a product that is presentable to the reader who is not supposed to be familiar with the original. It is also a skill because it entails the ability to smooth over any difficulty in the translation, and the ability to provide the translation of something that has no equal in the target language.
In translation, the richness of vocabulary, depth of culture, and vision of the translator could certainly have very conspicuous effects on his/her work. Another translator might produce a reasonably acceptable version of the same text, which, however, may very well reflect a completely different background, culture, sensitivity, and temperament. Such differences cannot, in Chabban’s view (1984), detract from the merit of either translator. This is simply because translation is decidedly a more difficult job than creation.
Criteria for a good translation
A good translation is one that carries all the ideas of the original as well as its structural and cultural features. Massoud (1988) sets criteria for a good translation as follows:
A good translation is one that carries all the ideas of the original as well as its structural and cultural features. Massoud (1988) sets criteria for a good translation as follows:
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El Shafey (1985: 93) suggests other criteria for a good translation; these include three main principles:
- The knowledge of the grammar of the source language plus the knowledge of vocabulary, as well as good understanding of the text to be translated.
- The ability of the translator to reconstitute the given text (source-language text) into the target language.
- The translation should capture the style or atmosphere of the original text; it should have all the ease of an original composition.
From a different perspective, El Touny (2001) focused on differentiating between different types of translation. He indicated that there are eight types of translation: word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, adaptive translation, free translation, idiomatic translation, and communicative translation. He advocated the last type as the one which transmits the meaning from the context, respecting the form and structure of the original and which is easily comprehensible by the readers of the target language.
El Zeini (1994) didn’t seem satisfied with such criteria for assessing the quality of translation. Hence she suggested a pragmatic and stylistic model for evaluating quality in translation. She explains that the model ” places equal emphasis on the pragmatic component as well on the stylistic component in translation. This model covers a set of criteria, which are divided into two main categories: content-related criteria and form-related criteria” and expected that by following these criteria, “translators will be able to minimize the chance of producing errors or losses, as well as eliminate problems of unacceptability” (p. xvii).
Translation problems
Translation problems can be divided into linguistic problems and cultural problems: the linguistic problems include grammatical differences, lexical ambiguity and meaning ambiguity; the cultural problems refer to different situational features. This classification coincides with that of El Zeini when she identified six main problems in translating from Arabic to English and vice versa; these are lexicon, morphology, syntax, textual differences, rhetorical differences, and pragmatic factors.
Another level of difficulty in translation work is what As-sayyd (1995) found when she conducted a study to compare and assess some problems in translating the fair names of Allah in the Qu’ran. She pointed out that some of the major problems of translation are over-translation, under-translation, and untranslatability.
Culture constitutes another major problem that faces translators. A bad model of translated pieces of literature may give misconceptions about the original. That is why Fionty (2001) thought that poorly translated texts distort the original in its tone and cultural references, while Zidan (1994) wondered about the possible role of the target culture content as a motivating variable in enhancing or hindering the attainment of linguistic, communicative and, more importantly, cultural objectives of EFL (English as a Foreign Language) education. Hassan (1997) emphasized this notion when he pointed out the importance of paying attention to the translation of irony in the source language context. He clarified that this will not only transfer the features of the language translated but also its cultural characteristics.
The translator’s work
These problems, and others, direct our attention to the work and the character of translators, how they attack a text so as to translate, and the processes they follow to arrive at the final product of a well-translated text in the target language.
Enani (1994:5) defines the translator as “a writer who formulates ideas in words addressed to readers. The only difference between him and the original writer is that these ideas are the latter’s”. Another difference is that the work of the translator is even more difficult than that of the artist. The artist is supposed to produce directly his/her ideas and emotions in his/her own language however intricate and complicated his/her thoughts are. The translator’s responsibility is much greater, for s/he has to relive the experiences of a different person. Chabban (1984) believes that, however accurately the translator may delve into the inner depths of the writer’s mind, some formidable linguistic and other difficulties may still prevent the two texts from being fully equivalent. Therefore we do not only perceive the differences between a certain text and its translation, but also between different translations of the same text
On the procedural level, El Shafey (1985:95) states: “A translator first analyzes the message, breaking it down into its simplest and structurally clearest elements, transfers it at this level into the target language in the form which is most appropriate for the intended audience. A translator instinctively concludes that it is best to transfer the “kernel level” in one language to the corresponding “kernel level” in the “receptor language.”
Translation skills for novice translators
The present study suggests four main macro-skills for any translator who begins his/her work in the field of translation. These are: reading comprehension, researching, analytical, and composing skills. These macro-skills include many sub- or micro-skills that need to be mastered.
Reading comprehension
While we are translating, we do not think of our activity as being broken down into phases. After doing our first translations, many automatic mechanisms come into play that allow us to translate more quickly; at the same time, we are less and less conscious of our activity.
Osimo (2001) indicates that in order to think about the translation process and to describe it, our essential task consists of analyzing its phases, even if we are aware of the fact that they do not always coincide with perceptibly different or distinguishable moments. If we want to describe a process that often is beyond the translator’s own consciousness, we are forced to divide the process into different phases which, in the everyday practice of translation, can reveal the inter-twining, almost entangling, of these phases. The first phase of the translation process consists of reading the text. The reading act, first, falls under the competence of psychology, because it concerns our perceptive system. Reading, like translation, is, for the most part, an unconscious process. If it were conscious, we would be forced to consume much more time in the act. Most mental processes involved in the reading act are automatic and unconscious. Owing to such a nature-common and little-known in the same time-in our opinion it is important to analyze the reading process as precisely as possible. The works of some perception psychologists will be helpful to widen our knowledge of this first phase of the translation process.
When a person reads, his brain deals with many tasks in such rapid sequences that everything seems to be happening simultaneously. The eye examines (from left to right as far as many Western languages are concerned, or from right to left or from top to bottom in some other languages) a series of graphic signs (graphemes) in succession, which give life to syllables, words, sentences, paragraphs, sections, chapters, and texts.
Simply reading a text is, in itself, an act of translation. When we read, we do not store the words we have read in our minds as happens with data entered using a keyboard or scanner into a computer. After reading, we do not have the photographic or auditory recording in our minds of the text read. We have a set of impressions instead. We remember a few words or sentences precisely, while all the remaining text is translated from the verbal language into a language belonging to another sign system, which is still mostly unknown: the mental language.
The mental processing of the read verbal material is of a syntactical nature when we try to reconstruct the possible structure of the sentence, i.e. the relations among its elements. In contrast, it is of a semantic nature when we identify the relevant areas within the semantic field of any single word or sentence; and it is of a pragmatic nature when we deal with the logical match of the possible meanings with the general context and the verbal co-text.
The difference between a reader and a critic is negligible: the reader trying to understand has the same attitude as the critic, who is a systematic, methodical, and self-aware reader. While reading, the individual reads, and perceives what he reads, drawing interpretations and inferences about the possible intentions of the author of the message.
Holmes (1988) suggested that the translation process is actually a multi-level process; while we are translating sentences, we have a map of the original text in our minds and, at the same time, a map of the kind of text we want to produce in the target language. Even as we translate serially, we have this structural concept so that each sentence in our translation is determined not only by the original sentence, but also by the two maps—of the original text and of the translated text—which we carry along as we translate.
The translation process should, therefore, be considered a complex system in which understanding, processing, and projection of the translated text are interdependent portions of one structure. We can therefore put forward, as does Hönig (1991), the existence of a sort of “central processing unit” supervising the coordination of the different mental processes (those connected to reading, interpretation, and writing) and at the same time projecting a map of the text to be.
Novice translators as well as student translators are advised to master the following basic reading comprehension skills.
- Read for gist and main ideas.
- Read for details.
- Identify the meaning of new words and expressions using one or more components of the structural analysis clause; prefixes, suffixes, roots, word order, punctuation, sentence pattern, etc.
- Identify the meaning of new words and expressions using one ore more of the contextual analysis; synonyms, antonyms, examples, etc.
- Identify the writer’s style: literary, scientific, technical, informative, persuasive, argumentative, etc.
- Identify the language level used in the text: standard, slang, religious, etc.
- Identify cultural references in the choice of words in the text.
Source : http://penerjemah.blogdetik.com/2009/06/19/what-every-novice-translator-should-know/#more-54
Translation Theory part 5
What is Translation?
Translation is the process in which a written communication or a text in a first language is produced as the written communication or text in the second language interpreting the same meaning. Here the text in the first language is the "source text" and the equivalent text that communicates the same message is the "target text" or "translated text". Initially translation has been a manual activity. Today, together with manual translation, there is also automatic translation of natural-language texts, which is referred to as machine translation or computer-assisted translation which use computers as an aid to translation. Translation is one way to bring the world closer.
Origin of the term
Etymologically, "translation" refers to "bringing across" or "carrying across". Originated from the latin word "translatio" , the perfect passive participle of which is "translatum" or "transferre". Trans implies "to transfer" and "ferre" implies to "to carry to bring across". For the modern Roman, Germany and Slavic European language, the word "traducere" is used for translation which implies "to bring across" or "to lead across" in English. The Greek term for translation is "metaphrasis" which implies "a speaking across". "Metaphrase" implies a word-for-word translation or literal translation while "paraphrase" in Greek means a saying in other words.
Factors to take in Consider for Translation
Translation is not so easy as it sounds to be. Moreover, translation does not mean a simple word for word for correspondence between any two languages. It is not a mechanical process where each word is translated to the target language. Rather, many factors are to be taken into consideration to get the exact output in the target language. The factors are as follows:
Approaches to Translation
There are two approaches to translation:
For the success of translation, four requirements are to be fulfilled:
http://www.thelanguagetranslation.com/what-translation.html
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Translation is the process in which a written communication or a text in a first language is produced as the written communication or text in the second language interpreting the same meaning. Here the text in the first language is the "source text" and the equivalent text that communicates the same message is the "target text" or "translated text". Initially translation has been a manual activity. Today, together with manual translation, there is also automatic translation of natural-language texts, which is referred to as machine translation or computer-assisted translation which use computers as an aid to translation. Translation is one way to bring the world closer. Origin of the term
Etymologically, "translation" refers to "bringing across" or "carrying across". Originated from the latin word "translatio" , the perfect passive participle of which is "translatum" or "transferre". Trans implies "to transfer" and "ferre" implies to "to carry to bring across". For the modern Roman, Germany and Slavic European language, the word "traducere" is used for translation which implies "to bring across" or "to lead across" in English. The Greek term for translation is "metaphrasis" which implies "a speaking across". "Metaphrase" implies a word-for-word translation or literal translation while "paraphrase" in Greek means a saying in other words.
Factors to take in Consider for Translation
Translation is not so easy as it sounds to be. Moreover, translation does not mean a simple word for word for correspondence between any two languages. It is not a mechanical process where each word is translated to the target language. Rather, many factors are to be taken into consideration to get the exact output in the target language. The factors are as follows:
- Actual context
- The rules of grammar of the two languages
- The spellings in the two languages
- Their writing conventions
- Meaning of idioms and phrases
- The usage of points and commas to separate decimals and thousands within numbers. This is to be noted that some languages follow reverse style. For example, while in English we write 1,000.01, the same is written as 1.000,01 in Spanish languages, except for Panama, Puerto Rico, Mexico, and the United States itself.
- Again text translation also implies the translation of right-to left alphabets (such as Arabic and Hebrew).
- The document needs to be read
- The document needs to be translated
- The document is then edited
- The document is then proofread, not to mention retyped and often reformatted.
- Sometimes, research is also required for translation.
- Thorough knowledge of the native language is required by the translator.
Approaches to Translation
There are two approaches to translation:
- Formal equivalence: Formal equivalence implies word for word translation or literal translation. It translate not only the exact appearance of vocabulary but also the idioms and grammatical structure used in the original. This creates a problem because idioms are expressions that have meaning which is quite different from the actual meaning of the words used in the idiom. For example, the idiom "top notch" implies excellent while in simple English it represents the top notch of a stick. The drawback of formal equivalence is that idioms or phrases can mislead or confuse the reader.
- Dynamic equivalence: Dynamic equivalence, also referred to as functional equivalence, implies the essential thought expressed in the source text. This include, if necessary, literality, original sememe and word order, the text's active vs. passive voice, etc. It is not following a word for word translation but changing, adding, or subtracting from the original text to make it look as the translator sees fit.
For the success of translation, four requirements are to be fulfilled:
- Making sense.
- Displaying the spirit and manner of the original.
- The translated document has a natural and easy form of expression.
- The translated document produces a similar response.
http://www.thelanguagetranslation.com/what-translation.html
Translation Theory part 4
Definition and Kinds of Translation
According to Brislin (1976: 1) translation is a general term referring to the transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language to another, whether the language is in written or oral form, whether the languages have established orthographies or not; or whether one or both languages is based on signs, as with signs of the deaf.
Another expert, Wilss (1982: 3), states that translation is a transfer process which aims at the transformation of a written source language text (SLT) into an optimally equivalent target language text (TLT), and which requires the syntactic, the semantic, and the pragmatic understanding and analytical processing of the source text. Syntactic understanding is related to style and meaning. Understanding of semantics is meaning related activity. Finally, pragmatic understanding is related to the message or implication of a sentence. This definition does not states what is transferred. Rather, it states the requirement of the process.
Nida and Taber (1982: 12) see translating as a process of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. In other words, translation is a transfer of meaning, message, and style from one SLT to the TLT. In the order of priority, style is put the last. Here the things to reproduce (transfer) is stated, message.
Newmark (1991: 27) defines the act of translating very briefly. It is the act of transferring meaning of a stretch or a unit of language, the whole or a part, from one language to another. (The discussion on meaning can be seen at sub-point F. Meaning, Message, and Style.)
According to the purpose, translation can be divided into four types: (a) pragmatic, (b) aesthetic-poetic, (c) ethnographic, and (d) linguistic translation (Brislin, 1976: 3-4). Pragmatic translation is the translation of a message with an interest in accuracy of the information meant to be communicated in the target language form. Belonging to such translation is the translation of technical information, such as repairing instructions. The second type is aesthetic-poetic translation that does not only focus on the information, but also the emotion, feeling, beauty involved in the original writing. The third is ethnographic translation that explicates the cultural context of the source and second language versions. The last type is linguistic translation, the one that is concerned with equivalent meanings of the constituent morphemes of the second language and with grammatical form. Seen from this classification, the translation of literary work should be the aesthetic-poetic one.
The other kinds of translation or translation approach important to review are the ones related to the concept of dynamic translation, semantic translation, communicative translation, and artistic translation.
Dynamic translation tries to transfer the messages or ideas into a target language and to evoke in the target language readers the responses that are substantially equivalent to those experienced by the source text readers (Nida and Taber, 1982 :28). A definition of dynamic translation centers on the concept of dynamic equivalence, that is the closest natural equivalence to the source language message. Hohulin (1982: 15) notices that the definition of dynamic translation contains three essential terms: (a) equivalent, which points toward the source language message, (b) natural, which points toward the receptor language, and (3) closest, which binds the two orientations together on the basis of the highest degree of approximation. Dynamic equivalence approach can be used in the level of translating sentences or group of sentences, because the whole message lies here.
Similar to the above concept is the idiomatic translation developed by Beekman and Callow (in Gutt, 1991: 68). It resembles the dynamic equivalence approach in the sense that it rejects the form-oriented translation and emphasizes that a translation should convey the meaning of the original. A translation, according to this approach, should be faithful to the ‘dynamics’ of the original, or the SL’s ‘naturalness’ of language use and ease of comprehension.
The idea of dynamic translation was first proposed by Nida and Taber and the semantic and communicative translation was by Newmark. He even states that the concepts represent his main contribution to general theory of translation (Newmark, 1991: 10). It seems to be a reaction to the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence, literal and free translation. In the above dichotomy, the first “pole” of the dichotomy (formal equivalence and literal translation) seems to be condemned for being not be able to transfer the message. Semantic and communicative translation seem to be in the middle of the two poles formal and dynamic translation. (Here formal translation is understood as translation that pursues the formal equivalence and dynamic translation is the one that seeks for the dynamic equivalence. Discussion on the issue of equivalence can be seen in the next sub-point.)
Semantic translation emphasizes the “loyalty” to the original text. It is more semantic and syntactic oriented and, therefore, also author-centered. On the other hand, communicative translation emphasizes the loyalty to the “readers” and more reader-centered. The two concepts are not to be contrasted with literal word-for-word translation which is criticized in the concept of formal translation and literal translation. He sees it as a translation procedure. He states that literal word-for-word translation is not only the best in both communicative and semantic translation, but it is the only valid method of translation if equivalent effect is secured (Newmark, 1991: 10-11).
He further maintains that, in fact, there is no pure communicative or pure semantic method of translating a text. There are overlapping bands of methods. A translation can be more or less semantic as well as more or less communicative. Even a part of a sentence can be treated more communicatively or more semantically. Anyhow he maintains that the more important the language of the text or units of text, e.g. in the sacred texts, the more closely it should be translated. Finally he points out that meaning is complicated, many-leveled, a ‘network of relation’. The more generalization and simplification is done, the less meaning is gotten. From this discussion, it can be argued that the choice between semantic and communicative approach is done in the level of translating sentences or even parts of sentence (Newmark, 1991: 10).
In the area of literary translation, Chukovsky (1984) offers the concept of artistic translation. Like the other types of translation, meaning is a very important point to consider. Yet, style is taken as importantly as the other aspects for style is the portrait of the author; so when a translator distorts his style he also distorts ‘his face’ (Chukovsky, 1984: 20). Besides the meaning, impression on the readers should also be kept the same. This translation expert states that it is essential that the readers of the translation should be carried into the very same sphere as the readers of the original, and the translation must act in the very same nerves (Chukovsky, 1984: 80).
To compare, formal and dynamic translation center on the message of the original, the semantic and communicative translation on whether author-centered or reader-centered, and artistic translation does on the consideration of literary aspects: ideas and style. The concepts are based on different ground. It is clear that the concept of dynamic translation is suitable for translating the Bible. It is so because the concept of dynamic equivalence itself was developed from the practice of Bible translation. As it is known, there are many kinds of text some of which are with the characteristics different from the Bible. The semantic and communicative ones, on the other hand, can be applied at any kinds of text. The case of style is also discussed by Newmark in his hint that “the more important the language of the text or units of text, the more closely it should be translated.” Finally, artistic translation is probably most appropriate for translating certain literary works, like poetry. Maintaining the author’ style accurately is very difficult in certain novels as the translator is confronted with the syntactic system as well as literary convention of the target language.
Translation Theory part 3
Due to the continuing evolvement of the translation industry there are now certain terms used to define specialist translations that do not fall under a general category. This brief guide offers an explanation of some of the more common translation terms used.
Administrative translation
The translation of administrative texts. Although administrative has a very broad meaning, in terms of translation it refers to common texts used within businesses and organisations that are used in day to day management. It can also be stretched to cover texts with similar functions in government.
Commercial translation
Commercial translation or business translation covers any sort of document used in the business world such as correspondence, company accounts, tender documents, reports, etc. Commercial translations require specialiast translators with knowledge of terminology used in the business world.
Computer translation
Not to be confused with CAT, computer assisted translations, which refer to translations carried out by software. Computer translation is the translation of anything to do with computers such as software, manuals, help files, etc.
Economic translation
Similar to commercial or business translation, economic translation is simply a more specific term used for the translation of documents relating to the field of economics. Such texts are usually a lot more academic in nature.
Financial translation
Financial translation is the translation of texts of a financial nature. Anything from banking to asset management to stocks and bonds could be covered.
General translation
A general translation is the simplest of translations. A general text means that the language used is not high level and to a certain extent could be in layman's terms. There is no specific or technical terminology used. Most translations carried out fall under this category.
Legal translation
Legal translations are one of the trickiest translations known. At its simplest level it means the translation of legal documents such as statutes, contracts and treaties.
A legal translation will always need specialist attention. This is because law is culture-dependent and requires a translator with an excellent understanding of both the source and target cultures.
Most translation agencies would only ever use professional legal to undertake such work. This is because there is no real margin for error; the mistranslation of a passage in a contract could, for example, have disastrous consequences.
When translating a text within the field of law, the translator should keep the following in mind. The legal system of the source text is structured in a way that suits that culture and this is reflected in the legal language; similarly, the target text is to be read by someone who is familiar with another legal system and its language.
Literary translation
A literary translation is the translation of literature such as novels, poems, plays and poems.
The translation of literary works is considered by many one of the highest forms of translation as it involves so much more than simply translating text. A literary translator must be capable of also translating feelings, cultural nuances, humour and other subtle elements of a piece of work.
Some go as far as to say that literary translations are not really possible. In 1959 the Russian-born linguist Roman Jakobson went as far as to declare that "poetry by definition [was] untranslatable". In 1974 the American poet James Merrill wrote a poem, "Lost in Translation," which in part explores this subject.
Medical translation
A medical translation will cover anything from the medical field from the packaging of medicine to manuals for medical equipments to medical books.
Like legal translation, medical translation is specialisation where a mistranslation can have grave consequences.
Technical translation
A technical translation has a broad meaning. It usually refers to certain fields such as IT or manufacturing and deals with texts such as manuals and instructions. Technical translations are usually more expensive than general translations as they contain a high amount of terminology that only a specialist translator could deal with.
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Administrative translation
The translation of administrative texts. Although administrative has a very broad meaning, in terms of translation it refers to common texts used within businesses and organisations that are used in day to day management. It can also be stretched to cover texts with similar functions in government.
Commercial translation
Commercial translation or business translation covers any sort of document used in the business world such as correspondence, company accounts, tender documents, reports, etc. Commercial translations require specialiast translators with knowledge of terminology used in the business world.
Computer translation
Not to be confused with CAT, computer assisted translations, which refer to translations carried out by software. Computer translation is the translation of anything to do with computers such as software, manuals, help files, etc.
Economic translation
Similar to commercial or business translation, economic translation is simply a more specific term used for the translation of documents relating to the field of economics. Such texts are usually a lot more academic in nature.
Financial translation
Financial translation is the translation of texts of a financial nature. Anything from banking to asset management to stocks and bonds could be covered.
General translation
A general translation is the simplest of translations. A general text means that the language used is not high level and to a certain extent could be in layman's terms. There is no specific or technical terminology used. Most translations carried out fall under this category.
Legal translation
Legal translations are one of the trickiest translations known. At its simplest level it means the translation of legal documents such as statutes, contracts and treaties.
A legal translation will always need specialist attention. This is because law is culture-dependent and requires a translator with an excellent understanding of both the source and target cultures.
Most translation agencies would only ever use professional legal to undertake such work. This is because there is no real margin for error; the mistranslation of a passage in a contract could, for example, have disastrous consequences.
When translating a text within the field of law, the translator should keep the following in mind. The legal system of the source text is structured in a way that suits that culture and this is reflected in the legal language; similarly, the target text is to be read by someone who is familiar with another legal system and its language.
Literary translation
A literary translation is the translation of literature such as novels, poems, plays and poems.
The translation of literary works is considered by many one of the highest forms of translation as it involves so much more than simply translating text. A literary translator must be capable of also translating feelings, cultural nuances, humour and other subtle elements of a piece of work.
Some go as far as to say that literary translations are not really possible. In 1959 the Russian-born linguist Roman Jakobson went as far as to declare that "poetry by definition [was] untranslatable". In 1974 the American poet James Merrill wrote a poem, "Lost in Translation," which in part explores this subject.
Medical translation
A medical translation will cover anything from the medical field from the packaging of medicine to manuals for medical equipments to medical books.
Like legal translation, medical translation is specialisation where a mistranslation can have grave consequences.
Technical translation
A technical translation has a broad meaning. It usually refers to certain fields such as IT or manufacturing and deals with texts such as manuals and instructions. Technical translations are usually more expensive than general translations as they contain a high amount of terminology that only a specialist translator could deal with.
Source : http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/translation/articles/types.html
Translation Theory part 2
Translation:
The transfer of meaning from one language to another. Translation takes place in writing and interpreting is its oral counterpart. The two terms are often confused. At its best, a successful translation should read as if it were originally written in the new language.
The transfer of meaning from one language to another. Translation takes place in writing and interpreting is its oral counterpart. The two terms are often confused. At its best, a successful translation should read as if it were originally written in the new language.
We believe translating is an art, not a science. You might get the impression that it's a mechanical process involving a box with a handle. All you need to do is turn the handle on the side of the box, and out comes the translation.
This is wrong.
Recent academic research has shown that translating from one language to another is one of the most complex higher order activities of the human brain. In fact, your wrong impression may be evidence of a good translation: great skill will often make an exceptional achievement look easy.
The translation method is dictated by the purpose of the translation. While the best translations will always be performed primarily by a human being, in some (limited) situations, machine translation can be a useful technique, and this is likely to increase in importance over time as this technology evolves.
Translation Memory:
A translation memory is database where a translator may record (usually semi-automatically) old translations for future reuse and easy searches. Although these programs are best classified under computer-aided/assisted translation, one must not confuse them with machine translation programs - translation memory software does not translate anything by itself, whereas a machine translation system actively produces language and translations based on linguistic data, such as grammatical rules and glossaries.
Translation Memory:
A translation memory is database where a translator may record (usually semi-automatically) old translations for future reuse and easy searches. Although these programs are best classified under computer-aided/assisted translation, one must not confuse them with machine translation programs - translation memory software does not translate anything by itself, whereas a machine translation system actively produces language and translations based on linguistic data, such as grammatical rules and glossaries.
Unit Of Translation:The smallest entity in a text that carries a discrete meaning. It varies all the time, ranging from individual words through phrases and sentences right up to entire paragraphs.
SVO - 'cows eat grass' - English, Finnish, Chinese, Swahili
SOV - ' cows grass eat' - Hindi/Urdu, Turkish, Japanese, Korean
VSO - 'eat cows grass' - Classical Arabic, Welsh, Samoan. (AoL)
The similarity of word order patterns between source and target languages is a factor in the relative ease of translation - or otherwise - between them.
Word-For-Word Translation:
Transferring the meaning of each individual word in a text to another, equivalent word in the target language. Sometimes called 'Literal Translation'. While this is clearly appropriate for dictionaries, it can produce very for complex passages of text. See 'Unit of translation'.
Transferring the meaning of each individual word in a text to another, equivalent word in the target language. Sometimes called 'Literal Translation'. While this is clearly appropriate for dictionaries, it can produce very for complex passages of text. See 'Unit of translation'.
Translation theory part 1
Translation as a communication process
by Frédéric Houbert
The translator, before being a “writer” as such, is primarily a “message conveyor.” In most cases, translation is to be understood as the process whereby a message expressed in a specific source language is linguistically transformed in order to be understood by readers of the target language. Therefore, no particular adapting work is usually required from the translator, whose work essentially consists of conveying the meaning expressed by the original writer.
Everyone knows, for instance, that legal translation leaves little room for adaptation and rewriting. Similarly, when it comes to translating insurance contracts, style-related concerns are not paramount to the translating process; what the end reader needs is a translated text that is faithful to the source text in meaning, regardless of stylistic prowess from the translator.
Yet, in an number of cases, the translator faces texts which are to be used within a process of “active communication” and the impact of which often depends on the very wording of the original text. In these specific cases, the translator sometimes finds it necessary to reconsider the original wording in order to both better understand the source text (this also sometimes occurs in plain technical texts) and be able to render it in the target language. This is the moment when the translator becomes an active link in the communication chain, the moment when his communication skills are called upon to enhance the effect of the original message.
The translation process here becomes twofold: firstly, the translator needs to detect potential discrepancies and flaws in the original text and understand the meaning they intend to convey. To do this, the translator often needs to contact the writer of the text to be translated (or any other person who is familiar with the contents of the text) in order to clarify the ambiguities he has come across. Secondly, once this first part of the work is over, the translator will undo the syntactic structure of the original text and then formulate the corresponding message in the target language, thus giving the original text added value in terms of both wording and impact. It is important to stress that this work will always be carried out in cooperation with the original writer, so that the translator can make sure the translated message corresponds to the meaning the writer originally intended to convey; remember, the translator is essentially a message conveyor, not an author.
In order to give an example of this value-added part of the translator’s work, let us take the following excerpt, taken from a speech to be delivered by a local official working for a French “Mairie” (i.e., the local authority managing public services in French towns and cities) on the occasion of a visit from British partners as part of a twinning agreement (I could also have chosen an excerpt from a translated advertisement, for instance, in which the rewriting work of the translator is also of the essence). This translating assignment meant more than just converting information from one language into another: it involved paying particular attention to the point of view of the translation user (in this case, the listener speaking the target language), in addition to fully understanding the ideas to be transmitted. This is obviously accounted for by the fact that a speech, just as any other direct communication text, includes an extra dimension as compared to usual informative texts: this dimension could be referred to as the “listener-oriented” aspect of a text. Obviously, the text of a speech not only has a written dimension, a quality shared by all other texts whatever the field, but also an oral dimension. This double dimension obviously needs to be taken into account by the translator in his work: more than is the case with other types of texts, the viewpoint of the reader/listener should be kept in mind at all times.
Let us take an excerpt from the speech in order to better understand the above-described process. One section of the text reads: “Je me dis qu’il est bon aussi de formaliser de temps en temps ces rencontres pour créer une mémoire collective de nos correspondances.” A rough translation in English would give the following result: “I feel it is useful from time to time to give these meetings formal expression in order to create a collective memory of our correspondence.” The latter part of this sentence sounds rather funny and the reader/listener will probably find it difficult to see what it means exactly. This is why I thought the source text needed a couple of clarifications; for one thing, the French “mémoire collective” has a historical dimension to it which I felt was inappropriate in a text meant to convey a positive, future-oriented message. In the mind of most French people, the collocative “mémoire collective” brings about images of the two world wars and of other vivid French historical events such as “Mai 68,” which as you probably know was a period of turmoil marked mainly by students’ demonstrations. Secondly, the French term “correspondances” is inadequately used (after consulting the author of the text, I found that it meant “all of the mutual achievements of the twinning partners since the signing of their agreement”). In short, the overall notion given by the French text is rather blurred, past-oriented, and the author fails to convey his ideas in a persuasive way.
After having analyzed these two inaccuracies with the help of the author, I came up with the following translation: “I feel it is useful from time to time to give these meetings formal expression in order to put on record our mutual achievements for better future cooperation.” This adapted translation is much more suitable for two essential reasons: it clarifies the original message, and consequently gives it greater power while also providing it with a positive dimension. I deliberately chose to add “for better future cooperation” in order to reinforce the cogency of the message, which the French original obviously failed to convey.
By making this choice, I decided to take an active part in the communication process by giving the message an extra dimension which it lacked in the original text: I simply chose to consider my work as a creative process in the best interest of the original message.
Let us look into another example taken from the same text. The first line of the last paragraph begins with the following words: “Nous souhaitons ce renforcement des échanges...,” i.e., literally, “We support this intensifying of exchanges....” When I first read this, I thought, well, who wouldn’t support a positive, fruitful exchange process? In order to avoid obtaining the same awkwardness in English, I therefore chose to stress the idea of support by inserting the adverb “fully,” which again causes the overall impact of the message to be enhanced. The edited translation finally read as follows: “We fully support the idea whereby exchanges should be intensified....”
As these two examples show, the work of the translator often involves a great deal of creativity, as well as a wide range of communication skills. This aspect of translation was also the subject of an article by Steve Dyson which appeared in Traduire (2/96), the journal of the Société Française des Traducteurs (French Society of Translators). Dyson calls this creative process “interlingual copywriting” and defines it as “the necessity, where appropriate, to give effective communication priority over fidelity to the original.”
Professional translators, while giving the above issues a serious thought, should however never forget that most texts to be translated do not require “adaptation” or “reader-oriented rewriting”; a full understanding of the source text and accurate rendering in the target language usually prove enough to give the client satisfaction and make the task of the translator an intellectually gratifying one. As with all other communication skills, creativity is best appreciated and yields the best result when used appropriately.
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