Melting Pot in US

The melting pot is a metaphor for a heterogeneous society becoming more homogeneous, the different elements "melting together" into a harmonious whole with a common culture. It is particularly used to describe the assimilation of immigrants to the United States. The United States is commonly referred to as a melting pot, a society in which people from societies blend together into single mass. some sosiologists prefer the term "multicultural". The term multiculturalism recognizes the heritages of millions of Americans, noting that Americans who are original from other societies do not necessarily have to lose their individual markers by melting into the mainstream. In terms of immigrants to the United States, the "melting pot" process has been equated with Americanization, that is, cultural assimilation and acculturation. The "melting pot" metaphor implies both a melting of cultures and intermarriage of ethnicities, yet cultural assimilation or acculturation can also occur without intermarriage. African-Americans are fully culturally integrated into American culture and institutions. 

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Assimilation to The Interaction of Cultures

Assimilation is the intermingling of two cultures which are accompanied by characteristic loss of indigenous culture to form a new culture. The process of assimilation was marked by the development of the same attitudes which, while sometimes emotional, aiming to achieve unity, or at least to achieve integration in the organization and action. 

While cultural interaction is a reciprocal relationship between human culture and culture to culture. Relationship between assimilation to the interaction of cultures is due to the interaction of assimilation happening of cultures. when many different culture live together in one society, misunderstandings, biases, and judgements are inevitable but fair learning experiences are possible. 

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Assimilation

Assimilation is the intermingling of two cultures which are accompanied by characteristic loss of indigenous culture to form a new culture. The process of assimilation was marked by the development of the same attitudes which, while sometimes emotional, aiming to achieve unity, or at least to achieve integration in the organization and action. Mixing of the two cultures in the local community Mass in one country or in one family, so as to create a new culture.

The factors for the occurrence of assimilation is:

- Tolerance among different groups

- Equal opportunities in economic

- Willingness to respect foreign cultures

- An open attitude ruling class

- Equation of cultural elements

- Amalgamation (interbreeding)

For example, if the A is a Balinese dancer who wants to learn to B who is a salsa dancer, will be a process of learning a new dance which resulted in a combination of two different dances. another example is the marriage of two people that resulted in a new culture.

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KERJA SAMA

Banyak kebudayaan indonesia yang belum diketahui oleh negara lain begitu pula sebaliknya. Selama 10 tahun terakhir ini kerjasama kebudayaan antara Indonesia dan Korea Selatan terus meningkat. Selain kesenian, dan kebudayaan, perpaduan budaya kedua negara pun sering ditampilkan dalam pertunjukan.

Dibidang pendidikan ada kerjasama Indonesia dan Suriname, ada tiga bentuk kerja sama yang dapat dijalin dengan Suriname, yaitu melalui beasiswa Darmasiswa, pertukaran dosen melalui kerja sama antar-universitas kedua negara, serta kerja sama kebudayaan. 

Wakil Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan (Wamendikbud) Bidang Kebudayaan Wiendu Nuryanti mengatakan, Indonesia melakukan kerja sama dengan tiga negara, yakni Prancis, Estonia, dan Swiss, untuk melestarikan budaya serta menjaga kota budaya agar tidak punah. Program konkret yang akan dilakukan ialah pengembangan museum.Ketiga negara tersebut akan mengirimkan para ahli permuseuman mereka untuk bimbingan teknis.Mereka juga akan membantu pembuatan workshop museum di Indonesia. Berbagai program kerja sama ini direncanakan terealisasi pada 2013.

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INTERAKSI SOSIAL

Interaksi sosial adalah hubungan antar sesama manusia, hubungan baik ataupun buruk, yang dapat mempengaruhi hubungan antar individu, kelompok maupun antar individu dan kelompok. 

interaksi sosial ada tiga macam yaitu:

1. Interaksi antara individu dan individu

2. Interaksi antara individu dan kelompok 

3. Interaksi antara kelompok dan kelompok

Interaksi sosial memiliki bermacam bentuk bisa menguntungkan ataupun merugikan.

Bentuk - bentuk interaksi sosial :

·         Interaksi sosial yang bersifat asosiatif (penggabungan) :

a. Kerja sama

b. Akomodasi

Bentuk penyelesaian pertentangan tanpa menghancurkan pihak lawan

c. Asimilasi 

 Pada dasarnya merupakan perubahan yang dilakukan secara sukarela yang ditandai dengan adanya usaha mengurangi perbedaan yang ada.

d. Akulturasi

Proses penerimaan dan pengolahan unsur budaya asing menjadi bagian dari kebudayaan suatu kelompok tanpa menghilangkan kepribadian kebudayaan yang asli.

·         Interaksi sosial yang bersifat disasosiatif, yang mengarah ke pertentangan (merugikan) :

a. Persaingan

b. Kontravensi

c. Konflik

 Syarat terjadinya interaksi sosial antara lain :

1. Adanya kontak sosial

Berdasarkan proses berlangsungnya, kontak sosial dapat dibedakan menjadi dua yaitu :

a. Kontak primer, terjadi secara langsung bertatapan muka, baik melalui persentuhan fisik maupun tidak, misalnya berjabat tangan, berbicara, bahasa isyarat, tersenyum.

b. Kontak sekunder, terjadi secara tidak langsung menggunakan media tertentu, misalnya melalui TV, telepon, dan lain-lain.

Berdasarkan jumlah individu yang terlibat di dalamnya, kontak sosial dapat dibedakan:

a. Kontak antar individu. Contohnya: kontak antara guru dengan guru, antara penjual dengan pembeli, dan lain-lain.

b. Kontak antarkelompok. Contohnya pertandingan sepak bola yang mempertemukan dua tim sepak bola, perlombaan cerdas cermat, dan lain-lain.

c. Kontak antara individu dengan kelompok. Contohnya guru sedang mengajar murid-muridnya, penceramah dengan peserta seminar, dan lain-lain.

2. Komunikasi

Komunikasi adalah adanya tanggapan atau reaksi seseorang terhadap suatu tindakan tertentu dari orang lain. Dalam hal ini komunikasi terjadi setelah adanya kontak sosial 

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AKULTURASI BUDAYA

Akulturasi budaya adalah proses sosial yang tumbuh apabila masyarakat dengan suatu kebudayaan tertentu dihadapkan dengan budaya asing. Banyak contoh akulturasi budaya Indonesia dengan bangsa lain yang masih ada sampai sekarang seperti pada bentuk bangunan dan seni. Akulturasi budaya dapat karena keterbukaan suatu komunitas masyarakat akan mengakibatkan kebudayaan yang mereka miliki akan terpengaruh dengan kebudayaan komunitas masyarakat lain.

 Bangunan rumah di daerah Kota, Jakarta Utara dan Juga Museum Fatahillah Jakarta merupakan wujud akulturasi dari kebudayaan yang dibawa oleh bangsa-bangsa Eropa ketika menjajah Indonesia. Bangunan Museum Fatahillah menyerupai Istana Dam di Amsterdam, yang terdiri atas bangunan utama dengan dua sayap di bagian timur dan barat serta bangunan yang digunakan sebagai kantor, ruang pengadilan, dan ruang-ruang bawah tanah yang dipakai sebagai penjara.

Tari gambang kromong

Dan juga seni tari seperti  tari Betawi. Sejak dulu orang Betawi tinggal di berbagai wilayah Jakarta. Ada yang tinggal di pesisir, di tengah kota dan pinggir kota. Perbedaan tempat tinggal menyebabkan perbedaan kebiasaan dan karakter. Selain itu interaksi dengan suku bangsa lain memberi ciri khas bagi orang Betawi. Tari yang diciptakan pun berbeda. Interaksi orang Betawi dengan bangsa Cina tercipta tari cokek, lenong, dan gambang kromong.

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Demam K-Pop mempengaruhi musik Indonesia

K-pop adalah kepanjangan dari Korean Pop, jenis musik populer yang berasal dari Korea Selatan. Banyak artis dan kelompok K-pop yang dikenal dengan boyband dan girlband. Ini tidak lain adalah pengaruh Hallyu (Korean Wave) yang sudah mendunia termasuk ke Negara kita, Indonesia. Para artis K-Pop ini dikenal dengan sebutan Hallyu Star. Biasanya untuk menarik perhatian penonton akan sebuah drama yang baru tayang, pemeran utama drama tersebut pastilah anggota dari boybang atau girlband yang sedang naik daun.

Dan sekarang di Indonesia yang gencar dengan boyband dan girlbandnya bisa dibilang karena pengaruh hallyu. Sebelum adanya pengaruh hallyu di Indonesia, musik nasional diisi dengan music melayu dengan  formasi grup band seperti ST12, armada, hijau daun, dan masih banyakn band beraliran music melayu lainnya. Seiring dengan masuknya hallyu ke Indonesia maka semakin terkikislah musik melayu yang dulu sangat di gandrungi oleh masyarakat Indonesia, begitu juga dengan formasi grup band yang sekarang berupak menjadi Boyband dan girlband. Seperti yang kita tau Smash dan 7Icon adalah pelopor boy dan girlband di Indonesia.

Sebenarnya tidak perlu sampai ada pro kontra yang menybabkan perdebatan tentang fenomena boy band dasn girlband ini. Ini hanya sebuah siklus yang nantinya akan memiliki masa berada diatas dan di bawah seperti halnya musik melayu. Nanti akan ada saatnya masyarakat bosan dan ingin mencari music baru yang membuat masyarakat merasa nyaman. Mungkin yang serin menjadi perdebatan dari Boyband dan girlband Indonesia adalah masa pembelajaran mereka yang instan, dan biasanya mengandalkan satu lagu yang itu lagi, itu lagi.

Jika dibandingkan dengan boyband dan girlband asal korea yang memulai demam K-Pop. Mereka benar-benar dilatih untuk menjadi bintang yang tidak hanya mengandalkan wajah tapi juga kualitas vocal yang bisa diperhitungkan, mereka memiliki masa pelatihan rata-rata 3 sampai 6 tahun, barulah mereka didebutkan sebagai penyanyi. Di Indonesia yang sudah bisa dikatakan bagus mungkin cherrybelle dan Smash, mereka sudah memiliki lebih dari satu single dan penampilan livenya cukup bagus.

Tapi apakah di tahun 2012 ini mereka akan terus berkarya dan bertahan mengingat semakin banyak pesaing yang bermunculan. Mengingat ini adalah sebuah siklus pasti ada masa dimana mereka akan berada dibawah. Dan bila ada tren musik baru lagi yang masuk ke Indonesia kita harap mereka biasa bersaing dengan karya yang lebih baik lagi.

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Indonesia dan Korea

Seperti diketahui, Korean Wave atau yang lebih dikenal dengan Hallyu sudah sangat dikenal di Indonesia. Sampai-sampai setiap hari pemirsa televisi dimanjakan dengan hadirnya berbagai tayangan drama korea. Belum lagi K-Pop dan style Korea yang sudah sangat melekat di Indonesia. Demam Boyband dan fashion berbau korea juga sangat diminati semua kalangan di Indonesia. Dengan pengaruh hallyu yang ada, kebudayaan Korea Selatan juga sudah sangat menginfeksi masyarakat. Siapa yang tidak tahu bagaimana bentuk pakaian tradisional Korea (Hanbok) atau daerah-daerah wisata terkenal di Korea yang memiliki pemandangan alam yang bagus seperti di drama-drama korea, atau berapa banyak remaja dan penikmat drama yang ingin sekali bisa berbahasa Korea.

Satu hal yang menarik dengan adanya hallyu adalah bagaimana Korea Selatan dapat memperkenalkan negaranya, kebudayaan serta kehidupan masyarakatnya. Mereka tidak dengan langsung memperkenalkan negaranya, tetapi dengan style fashion para artis K_pop, kehidupan dan kebudayaan Korea di drama-drama Korea, serta bagaimana mereka dapat mengemas Korea Selatan menjadi sangat entertain dan menarik untuk diamati dan dikunjungi. Sebenarnya Indonesia dan Korea memiliki banyak persamaan. Dari latar belakang negara yang dulunya kerajaan, menjadi sebuah Republik. Sama-sama pernah mengalami masa penjajahan. Indonesia dijajah Belanda dan Korea Selatan mengalami masa suram saat dijajah Jepang dan juga perang saudara dengan Korea Utara. Tetapi Korea Selatan dapat bangkit dan hasilnya seperti sekarang ini, terkenal menjadi Negara produsen kendaraan dan elektronik serta sekarang dengan K-Popnya.

Dari drama Korea saja, kita dapat mengadaptasi bagaimana Korea Selatan dengan apik membuat drama korea yang menarik dan juga stylish. Banyak jenis drama yang mereka hasilkan, dari yang modern seperti percintaan di perusahaan atau kebudayaan kerajaannya banyak diangkat menjadi kisah drama yang menarik di drama Lie to me. Atau Queen Seon Deok yang sangat diminati di Indonesia. Kita ingat bagaimana dulu saat jaman sekolah, di kelas sejarah Indonesia, banyak sekali kisah yang terjadi di jaman kerajaan. Dari percintaan hingga kepahlawanan. Semuanya itu dapat menjadi aset ide yang sangat menarik untuk dibuat dramanya. Dari situ kita dapat mengadaptasi cara Korea Selatan dalam memperkenalkan kebudayaan dan kehidupan masyarakatnya. Sepertinya juga  banyak sekali cerita raktyat seperti Jang Geum di Indonesia atau kisah skandal percintaan yang terjadi di Kerajaan. Tetapi kenapa belum ada satu pun yang mau mengemasnya ke dalam sebuah tontonan drama yang menarik. Isi dramanya pun tidak terlalu berat, dan kadang diselingi dengan humor dan modern seperti Princess Hours sehingga tidak terkesan kolot dan membosankan.

Indonesia dapat mengenalkan keragaman batik atau wayang atau juga kebudayaan Indonesia yang berbeda dari Sabang sampai Merauke. Semuanya itu dapat menjadi aset ide bagi drama-drama kita. Kerajaan di Jawa pasti sangat berbeda dengan di Kalimantan.intinya semua kisah kerajaan di seluruh Indonesia pasti berbeda-beda. Hanya kreatifitas ide cerita yang diperlukan untuk mengangkatnya dalam sebuah drama-drama pecintaan atau persahabatan. Tidak usah terlalu berat, model percintaan orang Jawa dan Betawi pasti ada perbedaannya.

Maka dari itu kenapa para kreatif di bidang perfilman tidak mencoba sesuatu yang baru seperti mengangkat tentang sejarah Indonesia. Tidak hanya mengisi perfilman Indonesia dengan film horror berbumbukan seks. Kita boleh mengagumi hasil karya Negara lain seperti drama dan film korea, dan kita juga bisa mengambil hal positif yang ada bukan hanya sekedar menjiplak. Indonesia juga Negara yang memiliki ragam budaya yang bisa diangkat menjadi kisah drama yang menarik, mungkin nantinya akan membuat Indonesia labih terkenal dari Korea.

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Hallyu –Korean Wave-

Apa yang ada dipikiran anda jika mendengar nama Negara Korea disebutkan. K-Pop, mungkin itulah kata pertama yang ada dipikiran anda. Awal demam K-Pop sebenarnya berawal dari drama korea yang ditayangkan di televisi swasta nasional seperti Indosiar dan Anteve. Kegemaran akan drama dan musik Korea ini disebut dengan Korean Wave atau Hallyu. Umumnya Hallyu memicu banyak orang di negara yang sedang terserang hallyu untuk mempelajari Bahasa Korea dan kebudayaan Korea.

Kegemaran  akan budaya   korea ini bemula pada akhir tahun 1990, istilah hallyu sendiri di adopsi dari media di cina setelah album musik boyband korea H.O.T  dirilis di Cina. Sekarang ini, Hallyu diikuti dengan banyaknya perhatian akan produk Korea Selatan, seperti masakan, barang elektronik, musik dan film. Fenomena ini turut mempromosikan Korea diberbagai negara.Pemerintah Korea sendiri sangat mendukung dan memiliki peran dalam mewabahnya hallyu. Dukungan tersebut diwujudkan dengan menghindarkan diri dari gempuran industri entertaiment dari barat. Selain itu dukungan dari pemerintah juga diwujudkan melalui berbagai event seni seperti festival-festival film dan music bertaraf. Internasional.

Drama Korea merupakan penyebab dari mulainya Hallyu di berbagai Negara. Dimulai dengan drama Winter Sonata, Dae Jang Geum, Stairway to Heaven, hingga Boys Before Flowers. Ini juga berpengaruh dengan terpromisinya bahasa dan kebudayaan Korea. Alur cerita yang kuat dan menarik, pemain drama yang mudah menhayati peran serta tema – tema tentang cinta , pengorbanan, dan keluarga membuat drama Korea semakin menarik untuk ditonton. Faktor-faktor tersebut menjadikan drama Korea lebih mengena bagi masyarakat pada umumnya daripada dengan drama dari barat.

Dan dengan semakin banyaknya drama korea yang ditayangkan di televisi swasta nasional di Indonesia maka semakin terpengaruhlah masyarakat dengan budaya Hallyu. Di drama korea yang sekarang beredar banyak memasang para Hallyu star yang merupakan member dari girl dan boy group. Seperti Rain dalam serial Full House, Kim Joon T-Max di Boys Before Flowers, Minho SHINee di Salamander Guru, dan masih banyak lagi drama yang diperankan oleh Hallyu star. Seiring dengan semakin terkenalnya Boyband dan Girlband Korea maka semakin sering diadakan konser di luar korea yang bisa menguntungkan pemerintah Korea.

Tidak hanya itu hallyu atau korean wave ini kemudian berdampak pada pariwisata. Lokasi syuting drama korea yang terkenal menjadi obyek pariwisata yang digemari para turis untuk dikunjungi. Tentu dengan semakin banyak turis yang mendatangi korea lagi-lagi berdampak terhadap bertambahnya devisa negara juga dapat sekaligus lebih mendekatkan secara emosional antara korea dengan turis. Sebenarnya pengaruh Hallyu ada yang baik dan ada juga yang buruk tergantung bagaimana Negara dan masyarakatnya menanggapi pengaruh tersebut, serta lebih menghargai budaya sendiri. Kita boleh menyukai budaya dan hasil karya Negara lain asalkan tidak lupa dengan produk yang dihasilkan Negara sendiri.

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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LHv4eHp_gUM&feature=relmfu

So awkward Mr. darcy... ^^

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Psychological Approach --File Seven-- End

In Their Minds

Dissecting Beowulf using a psychological approach is not an easy task. Since Beowulf is essentially an oral epic, it is possible there are a multitude of authors. This creates issues when trying to use a psychological lens when evaluating the author. In this essay, we will attempt to psychologically analyze the key characters in Beowulf and use our best judgment to examine the possible psychological state of the author(s).
The protagonist of this epic poem is Beowulf. Beowulf is a consistent hero and leader. While many readers view Beowulf as being arrogant and confident, we believe he has many insecurities that drive him to take on dangerous endeavors. Beowulf could be described as using projection , a defense mechanism of neuroses , to cope with his mental insecurities. Projection is when one takes his/her bad characteristics and transmits them onto another person, in other words a scapegoat is created. The first example of this is the swimming contest between Beowulf and Unferth. Unferth questions Beowulf's abilities, and Beowulf retaliates with a shower of excuses that explain away his mistakes and obvious loss. Lines 529 to 606 of the poem describe this tale. He speaks of the obstacles that prevented him from winning, such as, wind, waves, cold, and ocean creatures attacking him (Psychoanalysis Mini-Primer 1).

Time and again, foul things attacked me,
lurking and stalking, but I lashed out,
gave as good as I got with my sword.
My flesh was not for feasting on,
there would be no monsters gnawing and gloating
over their banquet at the bottom of the sea. (Heaney 39)

Throughout the poem, Beowulf feels the need to prove himself as a hero in order to silence the doubts from others as well as the inner doubts he places on himself. Beowulf does not take these risks to help or benefit others, instead he engages in these outrageous endeavors for selfish and self-glorifying reasons. He is seeking fame and trying to establish a legacy that will last for all time.
The main villain in this poem is Grendel. Grendel is said to be the descendent of Cain, which automatically suggests evil because of the famous Biblical story. In the Bible, Cain was banished from Eden because he murdered his brother Abel. This reflects Grendel's position and status in society. Grendel is suffering from alienation , a psychological term meaning, “ separation from nature, other people, or oneself that results in feelings of loneliness, emptiness, or despair .” ( http://www.pearsoned.ca/psych/main.html) He is an outsider in the Danish community, and we feel Grendel is lashing out at the members of society that have rejected him. Deep down we believe Grendel is jealous of the people in Heorot Hall, and as a result, he takes his rage out on them.

Then his rage boiled over, he ripped open
the mouth of the building, maddening for blood,
pacing the length of the patterned floor
with his loathsome tread, while a baleful light,
flame more than light, flared from his eyes. (49)

Grendel is an aggressor , which means he displays “ intentional behavior aimed at causing either physical or psychological pain.” (http://www.pearsoned.ca/psych/main.html) It is easy to compare Grendel's behavior to that of a modern day bully who feels the need to dominate and be feared by others. Grendel feeds off of the fear of his victims and thrives on power. Like a bully, Grendel craves attention, even if that attention is negative.
Hrothgar is the king of the Danes in the Beowulf epic. He appears to be a good and generous king, however he can be viewed as being rather passive and lacking aggression. One could argue that Hrothgar has an inferiority complex , which is a, “ psychological condition that exists when a person is overwhelmed by feelings of inferiority to the point at which nothing can be accomplished.” (http://www.pearsoned.ca/psych/main.html) He allowed Grendel to terrorize his kingdom for twelve years before Beowulf arrived. Hrothgar can be viewed as a coward for never engaging in combat with Grendel personally. With all of his wealth, Heorot Hall, the kingdom, etc., we feel Hrothgar is trying to hide his insecurities behind his many material possessions. We believe Hrothgar uses his extravagance and wealth to blind people to his many faults.
Grendel's mother avenges Grendel's death in Beowulf. She never really taunted or disturbed the Danes like her son, until Beowulf killed Grendel. Like most mothers, she feels the need to take justice into her own hands by avenging Grendel's death. Much like Grendel, she is very brutal and vicious in her methods of attack. Even though Grendel's mother is a monstrous creature, she still displays the emotions of a human. Grendel's mother operates under the instinct theory , “ the notion that human behavior is motivated by certain innate tendencies, or instincts, shared by all individuals.” (http://www.pearsoned.ca/psych/main.html) Her attack on Heorot was out of pain and grief, emotions most mothers would have after losing a child. Another interesting characteristic of Grendel's mother is her role as a female in this epic. Instead of being submissive and subdued, she fights back by standing up to the man that took her son.

So she lunged and clutched and managed to catch him
in her brutal grip; but his body, for all that,
remained unscathed: the mesh of the chain-mail
saved him on the outside. Her savage talons
failed to rip the web of his warshirt.
Then once she touched bottom, that wolfish swimmer
carried the ring-mailed prince to her court
so that for all his courage he could never use
the weapons he carried; and a bewildering horde
came at him from the depths, droves of sea-beasts
who attacked with tusks and tore at his chain-mail
in a ghastly onslaught.” (105)

Grendel's mother does not fit the typical mold of females in this discussed time period. She is not a peace-weaver or a cup-passer but instead is independent and aggressive.
The author of this epic remains unknown to this day. Because of this uncertainty, it is difficult to know what was truly influencing the construction of Beowulf. Nevertheless, we feel the author is relating his own life to Beowulf. The character Beowulf is used to compensate for all of the author's shortcomings in his own life. Beowulf is everything the author wants to be, while at the same time, the author's insecurities are also shown in Beowulf's constant need for self-gratification. The author was more than likely a fame seeker and was seeking recognition for his creation of Beowulf. Finally, using the sexual undertones we have discussed in class, interpretations of Beowulf suggest sexual acts or frustration. Beowulf seems to display characteristics from the genital stage of the psychosexual stages of development . The genital stage is marked by “sexual interest and desire.” Perhaps Beowulf did not resolve issues from the phallic stage and is troubled by anxiety when it comes to sex. A prime example is the fight between Beowulf and Grendel's mother. The author writes of Beowulf embracing Grendel's mother in a very physical manner. The first sword, a phallic symbol for the penis, is proved to be ineffective in penetrating Grendel's mother. Due to the inadequacy of this sword, Beowulf obtained a larger sword. This can be interpreted as sexual frustration and insecurity (Psychoanalysis Mini-Primer 2,3).
The psychological approach to literature is quite complex. There are many different viewpoints in which one can derive from a work. This approach can be rather opinionated because every reader can make different conclusions when interpreting characters and their thoughts. Beowulf is no exception to this rule. This essay is just our interpretation of the main characters of Beowulf. Despite how the reader views Beowulf, there is no doubt that Beowulf is a classic that has withstood the test of time and can spark the imagination of every individual.

Works Cited

Pearson Education. 2004. 16 May 2004 < http://www.pearsoned.ca/psych/main.html >.




Source : http://homepage.mac.com/barbarap2/home/Approaches/BeowulfMWF.html

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Psycological Approach --File six--

What is Reader Response Criticism?
Reader response criticism places strong emphasis on the reader's role in producing the meaning of a literary work. It is in some senses an opposite approach from that of formalism. Whereas formalists treat meaning as objectively inherent in the text, in reader response criticism, the text has no meaning until it is read by a reader who creates the meaning. Unlike the formalistic critical approach, this type of literary criticism insists that works are not universal, that is, that they will not always mean more or less the same thing to readers everywhere. Indeed, according to one practitioner of reader response criticism, Norman Holland, the reader imposes his or her own identity on the work, "to a large extent recreating that text in the reader's image."
What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Reader Response Criticism?
Reader response criticism acknowledges that different people view works differently and that interpretations change over time. However, it also tends to make interpretation highly subjective and consequently does not provide sufficient criteria for judging between two or more different interpretations of the text. Reader response criticism has been used by literary critics ranging from I.A. Richards and Louise Rosenblatt to Walter Gibson and Norman Holland.
An Example of Reader Response Criticism
In reading the parable of the prodigal son in the New Testament, different readers are likely to have different responses. Someone who has lived a fairly straight and narrow life and who does not feel like he has been rewarded for it is likely to associate with the older brother of the parable and sympathize with his opposition to the celebration over the prodigal son's return. Someone with a more checkered past would probably approach the parable with more sympathy for the younger brother. A parent who had had difficulties with a rebellious child would probably focus on the father, and, depending on his or her experience, might see the father's unconditional acceptance of the prodigal as either good and merciful or as unwise and overindulgent. While the parable might disturb some, it could elicit a feeling of relief from others.

When using reader response criticism as a tool of analysis, you could write about how the author evokes a particular reaction in you as the reader, what features of your own identity influence you in creating your interpretation, and how another reader in a different situation might interpret the work differently.

Published by Skylar Hamilton Burris

Source : http://voices.yahoo.com/what-reader-response-criticism-8494593.html

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Pschological Approach --File five--

Psychological Approach
Definition:
Psychological critics view works through the lens of psychology. They look either at the psychological motivations of the characters or of the authors themselves, although the former is generally considered a more respectable approach. Most frequently, psychological critics apply Freudian psychology to works, but other approaches (such as a Jungian approach) also exist.
Freudian Approach:
A Freudian approach often includes pinpointing the influences of a character's id (the instinctual, pleasure seeking part of the mind), superego (the part of the mind that represses the id's impulses) and the ego (the part of the mind that controls but does not repress the id's impulses, releasing them in a healthy way). Freudian critics like to point out the sexual implications of symbols and imagery, since Freud's believed that all human behavior is motivated by sexuality. They tend to see concave images, such as ponds, flowers, cups, and caves as female symbols; whereas objects that are longer than they are wide are usually seen as phallic symbols. Dancing, riding, and flying are associated with sexual pleasure. Water is usually associated with birth, the female principle, the maternal, the womb, and the death wish. Freudian critics occasionally discern the presence of an Oedipus complex (a boy's unconscious rivalry with his father for the love of his mother) in the male characters of certain works, such as Hamlet. They may also refer to Freud's psychology of child development, which includes the oral stage, the anal stage, and the genital stage.
Jungian Approach:
Jung is also an influential force in myth (archetypal) criticism. Psychological critics are generally concerned with his concept of the process of individuation (the process of discovering what makes one different form everyone else). Jung labeled three parts of the self: the shadow, or the darker, unconscious self (usually the villain in literature); the persona, or a man's social personality (usually the hero); and the anima, or a man's "soul image" (usually the heroine).  A neurosis occurs when someone fails to assimilate one of these unconscious components into his conscious and projects it on someone else. The persona must be flexible and be able to balance the components of the psyche.
Practitioners:
Ernest Jones, Otto Rank, Marie Boaparte, and others
Advantages:
It can be a useful tool for understanding some works, such as Henry James The Turning of the Screw, in which characters obviously have psychological issues. Like the biographical approach, knowing something about a writer's psychological make up can give us insight into his work.
Disadvantages:
Psychological criticism can turn a work into little more than a psychological case study, neglecting to view it as a piece of art. Critics sometimes attempt to diagnose long dead authors based on their works, which is perhaps not the best evidence of their psychology.  Critics tend to see sex in everything, exaggerating this aspect of literature. Finally, some works do not lend themselves readily to this approach.
Examples: 

(1) A psychological approach to John Milton's Samson Agonisties might suggest that the shorning of Samson's locks is symbolic of his castration at the hands of Dalila and that the fighting words he exchanges with Harapha constitute a reassertion of his manhood. Psychological critics might see Samson's bondage as a symbol of his sexual impotency, and his destruction of the Philistine temple and the killing of himself and many others as a final orgasmic event (since death and sex are often closely associated in Freudian psychology). The total absence of Samson's mother in Samson Agonisties would make it difficult to argue anything regarding the Oedipus complex, but Samson refusal to be cared for by his father and his remorse over failing to rule Dalila may be seen as indicative of his own fears regarding his sexuality.
(2) A psychological approach to "The Silence of the Llano" would allow us to look into the motivations of Rafael--it would allow us to examine the effects of isolation and loneliness on his character and provide some reasoning for why he might chose to establish an incestuous relationship with his daughter. A specifically Freudian approach will tune us in to the relevant symbolism which will enable us to better understand the conclusion. For instance, with such a mind frame, we can immediately recognize that Rafael's statement to his daughter "I will turn the earth for you. The seeds will grow" is the establishment of a sexual relationship that will result in children. We can see the water in which she bathes as symbolic of that birth that is to come.
Sample Paper:
A Freudian Approach to Erin McGraw's "A Thief"


Source : http://www.editorskylar.com/litcrit.html#Psych

Conclusion :

·         Pychological Approach with Freudian theory, pointing the influences of character’s id, superego, and the ego.

·         Pychological Approach with Jungian theory, influential of myth criticism.  Jung labeled three part of our self : the shadow, the anima, and the persona.

                                                               
This approach can be useful tool for understanding some works, like the biographical approach. For example a psychological approach to John Milton’s Samson Agonisties and a Freudian approach to Erin McGraw’s in “A Thief”.

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Psycological Approach --File Four--

Pschologial apporach in Pride and Prejudice




One has heard of characters in a story. And the character of people. But character of Life? Does Life has a character of its own?
Like the individual and society, Life too has what may be called a character of its own. Life can be described in terms of the characteristic ways in which events occur, repeat, reverse, and the factors that determine the results and consequences of human action. We often perceive and label the characteristic actions of life with terms such as chance, luck, fate or destiny. Knowledge of the character of Life gives us mastery over this chance, luck, fate, destiny, and  LIFE.
Life is governed by subtle laws and principles of action and reaction that characterize the interaction between the thoughts, feelings and acts of the individual, society and universal nature. Great literature is true to life, and it can be studied to reveal these laws and principles. An in depth study of Pride and Prejudice reveals these laws here.Take the case of initiative. It is a law of life that initiatives by those in a higher plane of life (i.e. with greater wealth, status or power) toward those in a lower plane tend to be readily and richly fulfilled, provided the lower is a willing recipient and does not raise obstacles or resistance to receiving. Other initiatives generate results with lesser or greater difficulty. They meet with resistance in the measure the initiatives involve an upward movement or require energy and capacity beyond the endowments of the individuals involved. So Collins cannot marry Elizabeth, but he can marry Charlotte. Wickham can elope with Lydia, but not with Georgiana. Bingley can get Jane, not Georgiana. All of Mrs.Bennet's initiatives fails, but all it takes Charlotte to get Collins is three days plus a morning walk.
Initiatives may receive unexpected support from life when they are aligned with new movements that are gaining momentum. Initiatives may meet with unexpected resistance when they are aligned with movements that are passing out of existence. Lady Catherine’s efforts to marry her daughter Anne to Darcy meet with resistance and ultimately fail. Lady Catherine seeks to capitalize on the mutual pledge of her sister and herself that their children should marry, a practice whose value is passing out of existence. The social will is seeking to reinvigorate the aristocracy and that movement takes precedence over Anne’s personal connections. The light in Eliza’s eyes is enough to overcome the best-laid plans of the older generation to perpetuate itself in the old style. 
A study of every character's initiative, and and why one succeeded and another failed reveals to us the key to accomplishment. Another interesting study is the act. Each act is the expression of a force that tends to repeat itself. The greater the intensity of the force and the more times it repeats, the greater its capacity for further repetition. The quality and intensity of the force express in each subsequent repetition of the act. The very fact that the seeds of four marriages are being sown at the same time is an act of repetition. When Mrs. Bennet first asks Mr. Bennet to call on Bingley, Bennet protests and apparently refuses, but the next day he goes in deference to her request. When Bingley becomes interested in Jane, his sisters and Darcy protest, though ultimately they all accept Jane as his wife. Bennet’s initial protest is mirrored by their own.



To continue : http://www.prideandprejudice.info/life.htm

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Pschological Approach --File Three--

Psychological Approach to Analyze Literature

The aim of psychological study fold in three nature. For most is the objective of understanding behavior, that is of defining the operation those factors that combine the development and expression of behavior. Secondly is the psychologist striving to develop procedure for the accurate prediction of behavior. Thirdly, psychology aims at developing techniques that will permit the control of behavior that is, way of “ shaping”  or course of psychological development through manipulating those basic factors to the growth and expression of behavior.

The psychological approach leads most directly to a substantial amplification of the meaning of a literary work. When we discuss psychology and its place in a literary work, we are primarily studying the author’s imagination. As all literary works are based on some kind of experience, and as all authors are human, we are necessarily caught up in the wide spectrum of emotional problems (caused by experience). Not all recourse of psychology in the analysis of literary work is undertaken to arrive at and understanding of the literary work, to a certain extent, we must be willing to use psychology to discuss probability.

Source : http://awinlanguage.blogspot.com/2012/03/psychological-approach-to-analyze.html

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Psychological Approach --File two--

THE PSYCHOLOGY enables to study the interior life of the writer and study his work with reference to it. The psychology has provided the critic with a more precise language with which to discuss the creative process. The reality of a work of literature rests on the three factors (1) Author’s psychology (2) Character’s psychology (3) Audience’s Psychology

Sigraund Freud’s conception of literature is negative. He viewed art as a”substitute gratification” or in other words” fulfilment of libidious desires”, the process of draining the negative emotions. Freud is precisely an empirical scientist.

But C.J.Jung, with his concept of “collective conscious¬ness” acknowledged the element of drama and mystical thinking in literature.

The psychological approach is not new because even Aristotle’s “Catharsis” implies the purification of negative emotions. Aristotle viewed tragedy as a therapeutic process.

Joyce’s “Ulysses” and Lawrence’s “Sons and Lovers” lend themselves to this approach. The notions of (Oedipus complex and fixation are found in “sons and lovers”.

Earnest Jones viewed Shakespeare’s ‘Hamlet’ with the world of psycho-analysis. In his essay “Hamlet and Oedipus” he says Hamlet delayed the killing of Claudius due to his seeing ‘his own self in his uncle.
The liberty concept of ‘Stream of consciousness’ which is fed by the literary output of Virginia Woolf rests strongly on the exploration of the “Sub-conscious”.

Kenneth Burke in his critical essay “The Poetic Process” says that the emotions are evoked only when an abstract and intellectual idea is concretised through conceptualisation. It can be either drama, or novel, or story, or film. But the process is the same.

For full of essay look in : http://www.termpaperslab.com/essay-on-psychological-approach-of-literary-criticism/1606.html

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Psychological approach --File One--

The Psychological Approach: Freud

Aim of Psychological Approach: Provide many profound clues toward solving a work’s thematic and symbolic mysteries Abuses and Misunderstandings of the Psychological Approach: In the general sense of the word, nothing new about psychological approach.  Used as early as the 4th century by Aristotle. During the twentieth century, psychological criticism has come to be associated with the psychoanalytical theories of Sigmund Freud and his followers.  This association has resulted in most of the abuses and misunderstandings of this approach. Abuses results from an excess of enthusiasm, which has manifested several ways: Advocates push their critical theses to hard, forcing the psychoanalytical theory at expense of other considerations The literary criticism of the psychoanalytical extremists degenerated into a special occultism with its own mystique and jargon used specifically for the in-group. Results in widespread mistrust of the psychological approach in analyzing literature Freud’s Theories: Freud emphasized the unconscious aspects of the human psyche Most of the individual’s mental processes are unconscious All human behavior is motivated ultimately by sexuality (However, some of Freud’s own disciples have rejected this, including Jung and Adler) Freud assigned mental processes to three psychic zones: The id: Reservoir of libido, the primary source of all physic energy. The id functions to fulfill the pleasure principle. The id has no consciousness or semblance of rational order; characterized by a tremendous and amorphous vitality. Only has an impulse to obtain satisfaction for the instinctual needs in accordance with pleasure In short, the id is the source of all aggression and desires Two agencies to regulate the id: The ego: Protects the individual Rational  governing agent of the psyche Lacks the strong vitality of the id, regulates the instinctual drives of the id so that they may be in released in nondestructive behavioral patterns Ego comprises what we think of as the conscious mind The superego: Primarily functions to protect society Largely unconscious, superego is the moral censoring agency, the repository of conscience and pride Serves to inhibit or repress the id, to block off and thrust back into the unconscious those impulses toward pleasure that society regards as unacceptable (like overt aggression, sexual passion, and the Oedipal Instinct) Examples of the Psychological Approach in practice: The Oedipus Complex in Hamlet (Oedipus Complex is when a boy is sexually attracted to his mother) Rebellion against the father in Huckleberry Finn Id versus Superego in the short story “Young Goodman Brown” The consequences of sexual repression in The Turn of the Screw Love and Death in the short story “Sick Rose” Sexual Imagery in the poem “To His Coy Mistress” (Most often use of sexual imagery is finding phallic and yonic symbols) Morality over the pleasure principle in the short story “Everyday Use” Taken from A Handbook of Critical Approaches ot Literature, Fouth ed. Guren, et al

Source  :  http://ragingdove12603.tripod.com/id15.html

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Translation Theory Part 7 --- End

What is Literary Translation?

Literary translation bridges the delicate emotional connections between cultures and languages and furthers the understanding of human beings across national borders. In the act of literary translation the soul of another culture becomes transparent, and the translator recreates the refined sensibilities of foreign countries and their people through the linguistic, musical, rhythmic, and visual possibilities of the new language.

Professor Rainer Schulte, Co-Founder of ALTA


 Source : http://www.utdallas.edu/alta/about/literary-translation

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Translation Theory Part 6

The nature and importance of translation

Translation is ultimately a human activity which enables human beings to exchange ideas and thoughts regardless of the different tongues used. Al Wassety (2001) views the phenomenon of translation as a legitimate offspring of the phenomenon of language, since originally, when humans spread over the earth, their languages differed and they needed a means through which people speaking a certain language (tongue) would interact with others who spoke a different language.

Translation is, in Enani’s (1997) view, a modern science at the interface of philosophy, linguistics, psychology, and sociology. Literary translation in particular is relevant to all these sciences, audio-visual arts, as well as cultural and intellectual studies.

Translation is, in Chabban’s words (1984:5), “a finicky job,” as it has not yet been reduced to strict scientific rules, and it allows for the differences that are known to exist between different personalities. Translation is a heavily subjective art, especially when it deals with matters outside the realm of science where precisely defined concepts are more often expressed by certain generally accepted terms.

In the final analysis, translation is a science, an art, and a skill. It is a science in the sense that it necessitates complete knowledge of the structure and make-up of the two languages concerned. It is an art since it requires artistic talent to reconstruct the original text in the form of a product that is presentable to the reader who is not supposed to be familiar with the original. It is also a skill because it entails the ability to smooth over any difficulty in the translation, and the ability to provide the translation of something that has no equal in the target language.

In translation, the richness of vocabulary, depth of culture, and vision of the translator could certainly have very conspicuous effects on his/her work. Another translator might produce a reasonably acceptable version of the same text, which, however, may very well reflect a completely different background, culture, sensitivity, and temperament. Such differences cannot, in Chabban’s view (1984), detract from the merit of either translator. This is simply because translation is decidedly a more difficult job than creation.

Criteria for a good translation
A good translation is one that carries all the ideas of the original as well as its structural and cultural features. Massoud (1988) sets criteria for a good translation as follows:

A good translation is easily understood. A good translation is fluent and smooth. A good translation is idiomatic. A good translation conveys, to some extent, the literary subtleties of the original. A good translation distinguishes between the metaphorical and the literal. A good translation reconstructs the cultural/historical context of the original. A good translation makes explicit what is implicit in abbreviations, and in allusions to sayings, songs, and nursery rhymes. A good translation will convey, as much as possible, the meaning of the original text (pp. 19-24).

El Shafey (1985: 93) suggests other criteria for a good translation; these include three main principles:

1. The knowledge of the grammar of the source language plus the knowledge of vocabulary, as well as good understanding of the text to be translated.
2. The ability of the translator to reconstitute the given text (source-language text) into the target language.
3. The translation should capture the style or atmosphere of the original text; it should have all the ease of an original composition.

From a different perspective, El Touny (2001) focused on differentiating between different types of translation. He indicated that there are eight types of translation: word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, adaptive translation, free translation, idiomatic translation, and communicative translation. He advocated the last type as the one which transmits the meaning from the context, respecting the form and structure of the original and which is easily comprehensible by the readers of the target language.

El Zeini (1994) didn’t seem satisfied with such criteria for assessing the quality of translation. Hence she suggested a pragmatic and stylistic model for evaluating quality in translation. She explains that the model ” places equal emphasis on the pragmatic component as well on the stylistic component in translation. This model covers a set of criteria, which are divided into two main categories: content-related criteria and form-related criteria” and expected that by following these criteria, “translators will be able to minimize the chance of producing errors or losses, as well as eliminate problems of unacceptability” (p. xvii).

Translation problems

Translation problems can be divided into linguistic problems and cultural problems: the linguistic problems include grammatical differences, lexical ambiguity and meaning ambiguity; the cultural problems refer to different situational features. This classification coincides with that of El Zeini when she identified six main problems in translating from Arabic to English and vice versa; these are lexicon, morphology, syntax, textual differences, rhetorical differences, and pragmatic factors.

Another level of difficulty in translation work is what As-sayyd (1995) found when she conducted a study to compare and assess some problems in translating the fair names of Allah in the Qu’ran. She pointed out that some of the major problems of translation are over-translation, under-translation, and untranslatability.

Culture constitutes another major problem that faces translators. A bad model of translated pieces of literature may give misconceptions about the original. That is why Fionty (2001) thought that poorly translated texts distort the original in its tone and cultural references, while Zidan (1994) wondered about the possible role of the target culture content as a motivating variable in enhancing or hindering the attainment of linguistic, communicative and, more importantly, cultural objectives of EFL (English as a Foreign Language) education. Hassan (1997) emphasized this notion when he pointed out the importance of paying attention to the translation of irony in the source language context. He clarified that this will not only transfer the features of the language translated but also its cultural characteristics.

The translator’s work

These problems, and others, direct our attention to the work and the character of translators, how they attack a text so as to translate, and the processes they follow to arrive at the final product of a well-translated text in the target language.

Enani (1994:5) defines the translator as “a writer who formulates ideas in words addressed to readers. The only difference between him and the original writer is that these ideas are the latter’s”. Another difference is that the work of the translator is even more difficult than that of the artist. The artist is supposed to produce directly his/her ideas and emotions in his/her own language however intricate and complicated his/her thoughts are. The translator’s responsibility is much greater, for s/he has to relive the experiences of a different person. Chabban (1984) believes that, however accurately the translator may delve into the inner depths of the writer’s mind, some formidable linguistic and other difficulties may still prevent the two texts from being fully equivalent. Therefore we do not only perceive the differences between a certain text and its translation, but also between different translations of the same text

On the procedural level, El Shafey (1985:95) states: “A translator first analyzes the message, breaking it down into its simplest and structurally clearest elements, transfers it at this level into the target language in the form which is most appropriate for the intended audience. A translator instinctively concludes that it is best to transfer the “kernel level” in one language to the corresponding “kernel level” in the “receptor language.”

Translation skills for novice translators

The present study suggests four main macro-skills for any translator who begins his/her work in the field of translation. These are: reading comprehension, researching, analytical, and composing skills. These macro-skills include many sub- or micro-skills that need to be mastered.

Reading comprehension

While we are translating, we do not think of our activity as being broken down into phases. After doing our first translations, many automatic mechanisms come into play that allow us to translate more quickly; at the same time, we are less and less conscious of our activity.

Osimo (2001) indicates that in order to think about the translation process and to describe it, our essential task consists of analyzing its phases, even if we are aware of the fact that they do not always coincide with perceptibly different or distinguishable moments. If we want to describe a process that often is beyond the translator’s own consciousness, we are forced to divide the process into different phases which, in the everyday practice of translation, can reveal the inter-twining, almost entangling, of these phases. The first phase of the translation process consists of reading the text. The reading act, first, falls under the competence of psychology, because it concerns our perceptive system. Reading, like translation, is, for the most part, an unconscious process. If it were conscious, we would be forced to consume much more time in the act. Most mental processes involved in the reading act are automatic and unconscious. Owing to such a nature-common and little-known in the same time-in our opinion it is important to analyze the reading process as precisely as possible. The works of some perception psychologists will be helpful to widen our knowledge of this first phase of the translation process.

When a person reads, his brain deals with many tasks in such rapid sequences that everything seems to be happening simultaneously. The eye examines (from left to right as far as many Western languages are concerned, or from right to left or from top to bottom in some other languages) a series of graphic signs (graphemes) in succession, which give life to syllables, words, sentences, paragraphs, sections, chapters, and texts.

Simply reading a text is, in itself, an act of translation. When we read, we do not store the words we have read in our minds as happens with data entered using a keyboard or scanner into a computer. After reading, we do not have the photographic or auditory recording in our minds of the text read. We have a set of impressions instead. We remember a few words or sentences precisely, while all the remaining text is translated from the verbal language into a language belonging to another sign system, which is still mostly unknown: the mental language.

The mental processing of the read verbal material is of a syntactical nature when we try to reconstruct the possible structure of the sentence, i.e. the relations among its elements. In contrast, it is of a semantic nature when we identify the relevant areas within the semantic field of any single word or sentence; and it is of a pragmatic nature when we deal with the logical match of the possible meanings with the general context and the verbal co-text.

The difference between a reader and a critic is negligible: the reader trying to understand has the same attitude as the critic, who is a systematic, methodical, and self-aware reader. While reading, the individual reads, and perceives what he reads, drawing interpretations and inferences about the possible intentions of the author of the message.

Holmes (1988) suggested that the translation process is actually a multi-level process; while we are translating sentences, we have a map of the original text in our minds and, at the same time, a map of the kind of text we want to produce in the target language. Even as we translate serially, we have this structural concept so that each sentence in our translation is determined not only by the original sentence, but also by the two maps—of the original text and of the translated text—which we carry along as we translate.

The translation process should, therefore, be considered a complex system in which understanding, processing, and projection of the translated text are interdependent portions of one structure. We can therefore put forward, as does Hönig (1991), the existence of a sort of “central processing unit” supervising the coordination of the different mental processes (those connected to reading, interpretation, and writing) and at the same time projecting a map of the text to be.

Novice translators as well as student translators are advised to master the following basic reading comprehension skills.

• Read for gist and main ideas.
• Read for details.
• Identify the meaning of new words and expressions using one or more components of the structural analysis clause; prefixes, suffixes, roots, word order, punctuation, sentence pattern, etc.
• Identify the meaning of new words and expressions using one ore more of the contextual analysis; synonyms, antonyms, examples, etc.
• Identify the writer’s style: literary, scientific, technical, informative, persuasive, argumentative, etc.
• Identify the language level used in the text: standard, slang, religious, etc.
• Identify cultural references in the choice of words in the text.

 Source :  http://penerjemah.blogdetik.com/2009/06/19/what-every-novice-translator-should-know/#more-54

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Translation Theory part 5

What is Translation?

Translation is the process in which a written communication or a text in a first language is produced as the written communication or text in the second language interpreting the same meaning. Here the text in the first language is the "source text" and the equivalent text that communicates the same message is the "target text" or "translated text". Initially translation has been a manual activity. Today, together with manual translation, there is also automatic translation of natural-language texts, which is referred to as machine translation or computer-assisted translation which use computers as an aid to translation. Translation is one way to bring the world closer.

Origin of the term
Etymologically, "translation" refers to "bringing across" or "carrying across". Originated from the latin word "translatio" , the perfect passive participle of which is "translatum" or "transferre". Trans implies "to transfer" and "ferre" implies to "to carry to bring across". For the modern Roman, Germany and Slavic European language, the word "traducere" is used for translation which implies "to bring across" or "to lead across" in English. The Greek term for translation is "metaphrasis" which implies "a speaking across". "Metaphrase" implies a word-for-word translation or literal translation while "paraphrase" in Greek means a saying in other words.

Factors to take in Consider for Translation
Translation is not so easy as it sounds to be. Moreover, translation does not mean a simple word for word for correspondence between any two languages. It is not a mechanical process where each word is translated to the target language. Rather, many factors are to be taken into consideration to get the exact output in the target language. The factors are as follows:

• Actual context
• The rules of grammar of the two languages
• The spellings in the two languages
• Their writing conventions
• Meaning of idioms and phrases
• The usage of points and commas to separate decimals and thousands within numbers. This is to be noted that some languages follow reverse style. For example, while in English we write 1,000.01, the same is written as 1.000,01 in Spanish languages, except for Panama, Puerto Rico, Mexico, and the United States itself.
• Again text translation also implies the translation of right-to left alphabets (such as Arabic and Hebrew).

Beside the above factors, to get the final document all activities are equally important like

• The document needs to be read
• The document needs to be translated
• The document is then edited
• The document is then proofread, not to mention retyped and often reformatted.
• Sometimes, research is also required for translation.
• Thorough knowledge of the native language is required by the translator.

Translation requires a complete understanding of the customs and lifestyle of a group of people so as to translate in a manner that communicates to that culture's world view.

Approaches to Translation
There are two approaches to translation:

• Formal equivalence: Formal equivalence implies word for word translation or literal translation. It translate not only the exact appearance of vocabulary but also the idioms and grammatical structure used in the original. This creates a problem because idioms are expressions that have meaning which is quite different from the actual meaning of the words used in the idiom. For example, the idiom "top notch" implies excellent while in simple English it represents the top notch of a stick. The drawback of formal equivalence is that idioms or phrases can mislead or confuse the reader.
  
• Dynamic equivalence: Dynamic equivalence, also referred to as functional equivalence, implies the essential thought expressed in the source text. This include, if necessary, literality, original sememe and word order, the text's active vs. passive voice, etc. It is not following a word for word translation but changing, adding, or subtracting from the original text to make it look as the translator sees fit.

Success of Translation
For the success of translation, four requirements are to be fulfilled:

• Making sense.
• Displaying the spirit and manner of the original.
• The translated document has a natural and easy form of expression.
• The translated document produces a similar response.

Source :
http://www.thelanguagetranslation.com/what-translation.html

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